Section 4: Why was there a civil war in the United States and what were its results?
Differences between North and South
Industry
- The North was far more industrial than the South
- The Southern states only produced about 10% of the nation's industrial output in the 1850s
- The Southern economy relied on crops such as cotton which led to the need for slaves
Year
1800 1860 |
Northern states
60% 40% |
Southern states
82% 81% |
Urbanization
- The North was far more urban than the South
- In 1860, the Confederate states only had twenty towns with a population of over 5000
- The only Southern city comparable with cities in the North was New Orleans, with a population of 175,000
- Only 10% of Southerners lived in towns, whereas 25% of Northerners lived in towns
Year
1820 1840 1850 |
Northern states
10% 14% 26% |
Southern states
5% 6% 10% |
Immigration
- The North had many more immigrants than the South
- Most of the five million immigrants to the United States between 1830 and 1860 settled in the North
- One in six Northerners were foreign, whereas only one in thirty Southerners were foreign
Southern economic grievances
- Tariffs were constant grievances to the South
- Southern politicians were pressed for free trade
- Southerners felt exploited in many ways: they depended on Northern credit to finance the growing of cotton, tobacco, sugar and rice; they also relied on Northerners to market these crops and transport them, therefore most of the profits from Southern cotton ended up in Northern pockets
- However, the South was not economically backward: by the 1850s, cotton sales were half of the USA's exports, and the South had interest in a good railway and telegraph network
Southern efforts to diversify
- Southern media stressed the need for their economy to diversify so they started to invest in non-agricultural ventures such as railroads
- In the 1850s, the slave states quadrupled their railway mileage, but still continued to fall behind the North
- Southerners started to depend even more on cotton production for their income
- Many civilians were not concerned about the economic situation
The egalitarian North?
- The North was more egalitarian than the South
- In the 1860s, the wealthiest 10% of the Northerners owned 68% of the wealth
- The typical Northerner was a self-sufficient farmer, and the same was true in the South
- By 1860, 75% of of Southern families did not own slaves
The Southern planter class
- Less than 5% of the Southern population was made of planters: wealthy white people who owned the South's best farmland, the majority of the wealth generated from it, and most of its slaves
- The planters had political power and social influence to rival that of some men in the North
- Given that the South was democratic, planters could not count on political dominance
- Some planters were Whigs and others were Democrats
- Planters only held the majority seats in one state - South Carolina
Different values
- Most Southerners had no wish to industrialize and urbanize based on what they saw in the North
- Their values stated that they were gracious and hospitable, whereas the Northerners, or 'Yankees' were aggressive, ill-mannered and hypocritical
- Northerners had a better education than Southerners; the South's lack of population and abundance of surface area made it difficult to provide schools for all children
- The North was more responsive to new ideas in general
- People in the South were more violent: Southern whites were more likely to carry weapons and use them
Slavery, slave states and free states abolitionism
Slavery
In 1619, Virginia was an isolated settlement on the Chesapeake Bay. It was sparsely populated by men trying to make the colony profitable. They were being torn apart by hunger, disease, and raids by the native Americans. A badly damaged Dutch ship arrived at the town carrying 20 kidnapped Africans. The colonists bartered food and services for the human cargo. With the Africans working as servants and farmers, the colonies prospered. The colonists started to become anxious not to lose their labor. Africans were not subject to common law: they were workers without right. In 1641, slavery was legalized. Slaves became property that could be bought or sold and owned for life. The colonies became so profitable that the English king started a system that would transfer slaves from Africa to the Americas. When England outlawed its own slave trade, America started one themselves. Slaves became commonplace, but there had always been abolitionists in America: soon, it became a nation divided against itself. |
Slave states
A slave state was an American state in which slavery had been legal at a particular time. Slavery was legal and practiced in many of the Southern states; the Northern states had abolished it. The Missouri Compromise
By 1819, thirteen states had grown to twenty-two, eleven of which were free, and the other half of which were slave states. Because the admittance of Missouri into the Union would unbalance this, they were refused. A series of heated debates between Northern and Southern Congressmen resulted in the Missouri Compromise: |
- To balance Missouri entering as a slave state, Maine was created to balance as a free state
- It was decided that there would no longer be any slavery north of 36°30'
The Role of Slavery
The South’s economy was overwhelmingly agriculturally based, and focused mainly on cotton and tobacco. The plantation owners had their own slaves to provide free labour. They were adamant they could not run these plantations economically without the free labour provided by their slaves.
The South’s economy was overwhelmingly agriculturally based, and focused mainly on cotton and tobacco. The plantation owners had their own slaves to provide free labour. They were adamant they could not run these plantations economically without the free labour provided by their slaves.
The Compromise of 1850
In the year 1850, California wanted to join the Union as a free state, but there was no space left to create a slave state in order to balance the Union and keep the Missouri Compromise intact. Instead, some territories (specifically New Mexico and Utah) acquired by the United States during the Mexican war were given the choice of popular sovereignty and California was allowed to join the Union. However, these territories were north of the Missouri Compromise line, which meant if their people decided they wanted slaves, there would be slavery north of 36°30'. The compromise of 1850 essentially repealed the Missouri Compromise and implied that slavery could spread anywhere. This created tension because the North denounced the Mexican war as a Southern ploy to spread slavery. The Fugitive Slave Act was also put into place - if a slave escaped, even into the North, he had to be returned to his original owner.
In the year 1850, California wanted to join the Union as a free state, but there was no space left to create a slave state in order to balance the Union and keep the Missouri Compromise intact. Instead, some territories (specifically New Mexico and Utah) acquired by the United States during the Mexican war were given the choice of popular sovereignty and California was allowed to join the Union. However, these territories were north of the Missouri Compromise line, which meant if their people decided they wanted slaves, there would be slavery north of 36°30'. The compromise of 1850 essentially repealed the Missouri Compromise and implied that slavery could spread anywhere. This created tension because the North denounced the Mexican war as a Southern ploy to spread slavery. The Fugitive Slave Act was also put into place - if a slave escaped, even into the North, he had to be returned to his original owner.
The Kansas-Nebraska Act
In January 1854, Senator Douglas introduced the Kansas-Nebraska bill. It was designed to appeal to the South. It was important because it increased tensions between the North and South rather than being a peace offering. The territories of Kansas and Nebraska were established and Senator Douglas introduced popular sovereignty in both. By doing so, he repealed the Missouri Compromise which outraged the Northerners. He failed to predict the extent of Northern outrage, and by passing the bill, Douglas weakened his party, the Democrats, and flared up North-South rivalry.
In January 1854, Senator Douglas introduced the Kansas-Nebraska bill. It was designed to appeal to the South. It was important because it increased tensions between the North and South rather than being a peace offering. The territories of Kansas and Nebraska were established and Senator Douglas introduced popular sovereignty in both. By doing so, he repealed the Missouri Compromise which outraged the Northerners. He failed to predict the extent of Northern outrage, and by passing the bill, Douglas weakened his party, the Democrats, and flared up North-South rivalry.
'Bleeding Kansas'
Under the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, the idea of 'popular sovereignty' was embodied in law. This meant that a state, by a majority vote, could determine whether it would allow slavery or not under its constitution. As Kansas gained enough people to apply for statehood, there was a rush by pro- and anti-slavery forces to have a constitution submitted that encompassed their respective views. The Lecompton Constitution was the anti-slavery document. There was a competing pro-slavery constitution that was passed, in large part, due to the efforts of 5,000+ pro-slavery Missourians who crossed the border to vote. In any case, after much rejection, wrangling, bloodshed, speechifying, and all but open warfare, the Lecompton Constitution was accepted and Kansas was admitted into the Union as a free state.
Under the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, the idea of 'popular sovereignty' was embodied in law. This meant that a state, by a majority vote, could determine whether it would allow slavery or not under its constitution. As Kansas gained enough people to apply for statehood, there was a rush by pro- and anti-slavery forces to have a constitution submitted that encompassed their respective views. The Lecompton Constitution was the anti-slavery document. There was a competing pro-slavery constitution that was passed, in large part, due to the efforts of 5,000+ pro-slavery Missourians who crossed the border to vote. In any case, after much rejection, wrangling, bloodshed, speechifying, and all but open warfare, the Lecompton Constitution was accepted and Kansas was admitted into the Union as a free state.
Bleeding Sumner
In 1856, during the 'Bleeding Kansas' crisis, Senator Charles Sumner denounced the Kansas-Nebraska act. His anti-slavery speech argued for the admission of Kansas of a free state and went on to denounce slave power. On May 22, 1856, South Carolina representative Preston Brooks attacked Sumner with his walking cane in the United States Congress in retaliation for the speech and nearly killed him while doing so. It drew a sharply polarized response from the American public on the subject of the expansion of slavery.
In 1856, during the 'Bleeding Kansas' crisis, Senator Charles Sumner denounced the Kansas-Nebraska act. His anti-slavery speech argued for the admission of Kansas of a free state and went on to denounce slave power. On May 22, 1856, South Carolina representative Preston Brooks attacked Sumner with his walking cane in the United States Congress in retaliation for the speech and nearly killed him while doing so. It drew a sharply polarized response from the American public on the subject of the expansion of slavery.
The Dred Scott Case
The Dred Scott judgement took place when a negro slave, Dred Scott, stood before court with the help of anti-slavery lawyers and claimed he was free because he had been residing in free states for several years with his master. After many years, the case reached the Supreme Court and was judged in March 1857. The court decided the following:
The Dred Scott judgement was important in worsening relations between the North and South because the North further believed that Buchanan, the Supreme Court and the Democratic party were involved in a Slave Power conspiracy. This, combined with a rumor spread by the Republican party that Buchanan knew about the Supreme Court's decision and lied in his inaugural address horrified the North.
The Dred Scott judgement took place when a negro slave, Dred Scott, stood before court with the help of anti-slavery lawyers and claimed he was free because he had been residing in free states for several years with his master. After many years, the case reached the Supreme Court and was judged in March 1857. The court decided the following:
- It decided that slaves were not citizens of the United States and therefore could not bring an action in an American court.
- It stated that just because Scott had been in a free state (Illinois), having moved from the slave state of Missouri, it did not free him from slavery in his home state.
- It declared the Compromise of 1850 illegal and against the constitution because by forbidding slavery it deprived an owner of property.
The Dred Scott judgement was important in worsening relations between the North and South because the North further believed that Buchanan, the Supreme Court and the Democratic party were involved in a Slave Power conspiracy. This, combined with a rumor spread by the Republican party that Buchanan knew about the Supreme Court's decision and lied in his inaugural address horrified the North.
John Brown's Raid
On the night of 16 October 1859, John Brown led an attack on an armory at Harper’s Ferry to seize weapons for his slave revolt. He was trying to persuade slaves to join a rebellion against plantation owners. However, he had no way to inform the slaves of his intentions. He captured the arsenal but the state militia were dispatched after him. John Brown was captured and hanged. He was treated as a martyr by the abolitionists. He went down in folklore and had rallying songs sung about him. However, many Republicans condemned him, saying his actions were out of hand.
On the night of 16 October 1859, John Brown led an attack on an armory at Harper’s Ferry to seize weapons for his slave revolt. He was trying to persuade slaves to join a rebellion against plantation owners. However, he had no way to inform the slaves of his intentions. He captured the arsenal but the state militia were dispatched after him. John Brown was captured and hanged. He was treated as a martyr by the abolitionists. He went down in folklore and had rallying songs sung about him. However, many Republicans condemned him, saying his actions were out of hand.
The 1860 election and secession of the Southern states
The Republican Party
Prior to 1854, there had been two major political parties in the United States: the Democrats (also known the doughfaces), and the Whigs. Both parties were national, although the Democrats depended more on the North for support. In 1854, the Whigs split because of infighting and arguments caused by differing opinions on the Kansas-Nebraska Act. The ex-Whigs and Free Soilers all joined a new party known as the Republicans, who were a Northern-only party who tolerated slavery but did not want it to spread (they wanted the Kansas-Nebraska act repealed). In the 1860 election, they put up their second-ever candidate for President: Abraham Lincoln.
Prior to 1854, there had been two major political parties in the United States: the Democrats (also known the doughfaces), and the Whigs. Both parties were national, although the Democrats depended more on the North for support. In 1854, the Whigs split because of infighting and arguments caused by differing opinions on the Kansas-Nebraska Act. The ex-Whigs and Free Soilers all joined a new party known as the Republicans, who were a Northern-only party who tolerated slavery but did not want it to spread (they wanted the Kansas-Nebraska act repealed). In the 1860 election, they put up their second-ever candidate for President: Abraham Lincoln.
The Panic of 1857
The Panic of 1857 was a major economic depression that spread across the United States in 1857. The Democratic party, and therefore President Buchanan, refused to get involved: they offered no help to the unemployed, leaving that window open for the Republicans. Their suggestions and numerous appeals to the Supreme Court made the Republicans more popular amongst the Northern population, and helped them in the 1858 mid-term election. Unfortunately, all of their suggestions were rejected by the Democrat-controlled Supreme Court.
The Panic of 1857 was a major economic depression that spread across the United States in 1857. The Democratic party, and therefore President Buchanan, refused to get involved: they offered no help to the unemployed, leaving that window open for the Republicans. Their suggestions and numerous appeals to the Supreme Court made the Republicans more popular amongst the Northern population, and helped them in the 1858 mid-term election. Unfortunately, all of their suggestions were rejected by the Democrat-controlled Supreme Court.
The 1860 Election
In the 1860 Election, Abraham Lincoln, who represented the Republicans, ran against thee other presidential candidates:
Even though he did not appear on the ballot in ten Southern states, Lincoln won 54% of the free state votes and 40% of the overall votes. Originally, the Republicans party had been debating wether to put up Lincoln or Seward as their candidate, but Lincoln had several things to his advantage:
Also, Seward had disadvantages when it came to going against Lincoln:
In the end, Lincoln won the election because his main support was in the North: after the Panic of 1857, the Democratic party had started to become increasingly dependent on support from the Southern states because of their lack of support in the North. In the 1860 election, the battle was mainly between Lincoln and Douglas. Instead of trying to appeal to the South, Lincoln kept quiet and Republican propaganda gained him support in the North. The three anti-Republican parties tried to rally against Lincoln, but they did too little, too late. The Republicans primarily concentrated on the Slave Power conspiracy: Northerners were led to believe that a vote for Lincoln was a vote against slave power. Because the Democratic party remained the home of so many Catholics, anti-Catholic Northerners had no choice but to vote Republican. Republicans also embodied the notion that Lincoln was a self-made man by holding torchlight processions and carrying wooden rails. The Panic of 1857 also had a part to play - many Northerners approved of Republican economic proposals. |
States' Rights
States' rights refers to the struggle between the federal government and individual states over political power. In the Civil War era, this struggle focused heavily on the institution of slavery and whether the federal government had the right to regulate or even abolish slavery within an individual state. The sides of this debate were largely drawn between northern and southern states, thus widened the growing divide within the nation. The debate over which powers rightly belonged to the states and which to the Federal Government became heated in the 1820s and 1830s fueled by the divisive issue of whether slavery would be allowed in the new territories forming as the nation expanded westward. As the North and the South became more and more different, their goals and desires also separated. Arguments over national policy grew even fiercer. The North’s economic progress as the Southern economy began to stall fueled the fires of resentment. By the 1840s and 1850s, North and South had each evolved extreme positions that had as much to do with serving their own political interests as with the morality of slavery. John Brown's direct raid on Harper's Ferry confirmed Southern fears of a Northern conspiracy to end slavery. Southerners were convinced that the North intended to take away their right to govern themselves, abolish slavery, and in turn destroy the Southern economy when anti-slavery Abraham Lincoln got elected. They felt that the only way to protect themselves from this was to no longer be a part of the United States of America.
States' rights refers to the struggle between the federal government and individual states over political power. In the Civil War era, this struggle focused heavily on the institution of slavery and whether the federal government had the right to regulate or even abolish slavery within an individual state. The sides of this debate were largely drawn between northern and southern states, thus widened the growing divide within the nation. The debate over which powers rightly belonged to the states and which to the Federal Government became heated in the 1820s and 1830s fueled by the divisive issue of whether slavery would be allowed in the new territories forming as the nation expanded westward. As the North and the South became more and more different, their goals and desires also separated. Arguments over national policy grew even fiercer. The North’s economic progress as the Southern economy began to stall fueled the fires of resentment. By the 1840s and 1850s, North and South had each evolved extreme positions that had as much to do with serving their own political interests as with the morality of slavery. John Brown's direct raid on Harper's Ferry confirmed Southern fears of a Northern conspiracy to end slavery. Southerners were convinced that the North intended to take away their right to govern themselves, abolish slavery, and in turn destroy the Southern economy when anti-slavery Abraham Lincoln got elected. They felt that the only way to protect themselves from this was to no longer be a part of the United States of America.
Secession
Before Lincoln was elected, the prospect of a Republican president had filled Southerners with dread. They decided that if a Republican did become President, they would be prepared to consider the possibility of secession. In the end, Lincoln did win and most Southerners were outraged that a Northern anti-slavery party had captured presidency. Lincoln was depicted as an abolitionist and Southerners believed that slaves would be voted out of existence.
However, Southerners had several reasons not to secede after Lincoln's election:
Before Lincoln was elected, the prospect of a Republican president had filled Southerners with dread. They decided that if a Republican did become President, they would be prepared to consider the possibility of secession. In the end, Lincoln did win and most Southerners were outraged that a Northern anti-slavery party had captured presidency. Lincoln was depicted as an abolitionist and Southerners believed that slaves would be voted out of existence.
However, Southerners had several reasons not to secede after Lincoln's election:
- Lincoln had promised he would not interfere with slavery where it already existed
- His party did not control Congress so he could not abolish slavery
- Secession would mean abandoning an enforceable Fugitive Slave Act
- Secession might lead to a civil war, which would threaten slavery far more than Lincoln's election
The Confederate States of America
The eleven southern states that seceded formed their own country called the Confederate States of America. When the North told them that they weren't allowed to leave, the first shots of the Civil War were fired on April 12 1861 at Fort Sumter. The Confederate States were made up of many different people from all the Confederate states, but Jefferson Davis was the first and only President of the Confederate States.
The eleven southern states that seceded formed their own country called the Confederate States of America. When the North told them that they weren't allowed to leave, the first shots of the Civil War were fired on April 12 1861 at Fort Sumter. The Confederate States were made up of many different people from all the Confederate states, but Jefferson Davis was the first and only President of the Confederate States.
Reasons for the North's victory
Population and Resources
The American Civil War was won on the battlefield, but today the North's victory seems obvious because of its major advantage in terms of population and resources: by 1860, the North had 71% of the nation's total population and one third of the South's population were slaves. The North also produced over 80% of the nation's wheat and oats.
The American Civil War was won on the battlefield, but today the North's victory seems obvious because of its major advantage in terms of population and resources: by 1860, the North had 71% of the nation's total population and one third of the South's population were slaves. The North also produced over 80% of the nation's wheat and oats.
Manpower
One of the main reasons for the Union's victory was undoubtedly its numerical superiority. At the outbreak of the war, the North had 19 million people compared to the South's 9 million, including 3.5 million slaves who were not allowed to fight: this made the ratio four to one. The Union could also produce another 3.2 million people who were loyal to the North even though they lived in slave states. Escaped and freed slaves also joined the Union army after the Emancipation Proclamation. It was the ability of Union generals to take advantage of their numerical superiority on the battlefield that won the war.
One of the main reasons for the Union's victory was undoubtedly its numerical superiority. At the outbreak of the war, the North had 19 million people compared to the South's 9 million, including 3.5 million slaves who were not allowed to fight: this made the ratio four to one. The Union could also produce another 3.2 million people who were loyal to the North even though they lived in slave states. Escaped and freed slaves also joined the Union army after the Emancipation Proclamation. It was the ability of Union generals to take advantage of their numerical superiority on the battlefield that won the war.
Railroad and Shipping
In addition to its population advantage, the North controlled railroads and shipping for the entire country. Excellent railroad links enabled fast and inexpensive transportation of both soldiers and supplies, the key for warfare at the time. Monopoly in shipping and the Navy enabled the North to control river systems and impose blockades on the Atlantic, preventing the passage of goods, supplies and weaponry to and from the Confederate states. By 1860, 71% of the nation's total railroad mileage was in the North, this gave their military better communication lines, more efficient transportation, and faster transportation of supplies (guns and food).
In addition to its population advantage, the North controlled railroads and shipping for the entire country. Excellent railroad links enabled fast and inexpensive transportation of both soldiers and supplies, the key for warfare at the time. Monopoly in shipping and the Navy enabled the North to control river systems and impose blockades on the Atlantic, preventing the passage of goods, supplies and weaponry to and from the Confederate states. By 1860, 71% of the nation's total railroad mileage was in the North, this gave their military better communication lines, more efficient transportation, and faster transportation of supplies (guns and food).
Northern Industry
The industrialized Northern economy was another factor in the North's favor during the American Civil War. Northern industry supplied Union soldiers with enough arms, ammunition as well as necessary equipment such as food. The South did not have the facilities for mass weapon production and was not able to feed its civilian population properly; let alone its forces. The South produced enough food, in fact, they had a surplus, but they just did not have the developed railway infrastructure for efficient transportation. By 1861, the North produced 97% of the nation's firearms. By 1860, the North produced 92% of the United States' manufactured goods; they had six times more factories.
The industrialized Northern economy was another factor in the North's favor during the American Civil War. Northern industry supplied Union soldiers with enough arms, ammunition as well as necessary equipment such as food. The South did not have the facilities for mass weapon production and was not able to feed its civilian population properly; let alone its forces. The South produced enough food, in fact, they had a surplus, but they just did not have the developed railway infrastructure for efficient transportation. By 1861, the North produced 97% of the nation's firearms. By 1860, the North produced 92% of the United States' manufactured goods; they had six times more factories.
Failure of "King Cotton Diplomacy"
So-called "King Cotton Diplomacy" was the South's best hope of winning the Civil War and it failed. It was the idea that Southern cotton was extremely important in Europe, their main buyer. The Confederate States even accepted the North's naval blockade, hoping the sudden lack of cotton exports from the South would convince Britain and France to intervene in the war. However, Europe had enough cotton, and when the South stopped supplying, the shortage was easily replaced by alternatives from colonies like India and Egypt. In addition, poor harvests in the early 1860s increased the demand for Northern corn rather than Southern cotton.
So-called "King Cotton Diplomacy" was the South's best hope of winning the Civil War and it failed. It was the idea that Southern cotton was extremely important in Europe, their main buyer. The Confederate States even accepted the North's naval blockade, hoping the sudden lack of cotton exports from the South would convince Britain and France to intervene in the war. However, Europe had enough cotton, and when the South stopped supplying, the shortage was easily replaced by alternatives from colonies like India and Egypt. In addition, poor harvests in the early 1860s increased the demand for Northern corn rather than Southern cotton.
Kentucky
Kentucky was a key state in the American Civil War. President Abraham Lincoln quickly recognized its importance and announced that "I hope to have God on my side, but I must have Kentucky" at the start of the war. Being a border state, Kentucky was one of the chief states where the "brother against brother" scenario was widespread - this was because Kentucky was the birthplace of both Union president Lincoln and Confederate president Davis. After Confederate general Leonidas Polk's failed attempt to take Kentucky, it requested help from the North and was placed under Union protection.
Kentucky was a key state in the American Civil War. President Abraham Lincoln quickly recognized its importance and announced that "I hope to have God on my side, but I must have Kentucky" at the start of the war. Being a border state, Kentucky was one of the chief states where the "brother against brother" scenario was widespread - this was because Kentucky was the birthplace of both Union president Lincoln and Confederate president Davis. After Confederate general Leonidas Polk's failed attempt to take Kentucky, it requested help from the North and was placed under Union protection.
The Battle of Gettysburg
The Battle of Gettysburg followed Chancellorsville, the consequences of which had led to the death of Stonewall Jackson. However, Confederate morale was sky high. On July 1 1863, Union troops came across rebel soldiers at Gettysburg. General Meade and Lee ordered their forces to battle at small town.
The first day of the battle belonged to Lee’s Confederate soldiers. By the end of July 1, Union troops had retreated to Culp’s hill and Cemetery hill.
Lee considered his options. Longstreet suggested that the Confederate army should swinging around the Union and find a defensive position rather than attacking Meade’s army of 85,000. However, Lee chose to directly attack the Union.
Serious fighting started on the afternoon of July 2. The Confederates had some success against the Union who had advanced into the Peach Orchard. The Confederate soldiers then tried to advance into the core of the Union army, but failed, The day ended in a stalemate.
On July 3, Lee launched his main attack on the Union. A total of 15000 advanced up Cemetery Ridge. This attack ended in disaster for the Confederates: in less than one hour, the 6500 Confederate soldiers had been mowed down by Union fire.
Lee had been beaten. Within three days, he lost one-third of his men (28000). He accepted full responsibility for Gettysburg after retreating to Virginia and offered his resignation. Davis did not accept it.
Gettysburg was the largest battle on American soil and a serious defeat for the Confederacy. Not only did it break the myth of Lee’s invincibility, it provided a morale boost for the Union. However, Gettysburg was not the main turning point of the war:
The Battle of Gettysburg followed Chancellorsville, the consequences of which had led to the death of Stonewall Jackson. However, Confederate morale was sky high. On July 1 1863, Union troops came across rebel soldiers at Gettysburg. General Meade and Lee ordered their forces to battle at small town.
The first day of the battle belonged to Lee’s Confederate soldiers. By the end of July 1, Union troops had retreated to Culp’s hill and Cemetery hill.
Lee considered his options. Longstreet suggested that the Confederate army should swinging around the Union and find a defensive position rather than attacking Meade’s army of 85,000. However, Lee chose to directly attack the Union.
Serious fighting started on the afternoon of July 2. The Confederates had some success against the Union who had advanced into the Peach Orchard. The Confederate soldiers then tried to advance into the core of the Union army, but failed, The day ended in a stalemate.
On July 3, Lee launched his main attack on the Union. A total of 15000 advanced up Cemetery Ridge. This attack ended in disaster for the Confederates: in less than one hour, the 6500 Confederate soldiers had been mowed down by Union fire.
Lee had been beaten. Within three days, he lost one-third of his men (28000). He accepted full responsibility for Gettysburg after retreating to Virginia and offered his resignation. Davis did not accept it.
Gettysburg was the largest battle on American soil and a serious defeat for the Confederacy. Not only did it break the myth of Lee’s invincibility, it provided a morale boost for the Union. However, Gettysburg was not the main turning point of the war:
- Even if Lee had won, he didn’t have enough forces to hold any Northern city
- Defeat at Gettysburg did not make Confederate defeat inevitable
The Atlanta Campaign
The Atlanta Campaign (6 May 1864 – 2 September 1864) was a series of battles during the American Civil War. The campaign was planned and executed by the Union Army under Major general Sherman. The first part of the plan was to defeat the Confederate Army of Tennessee led by General Johnston. The second goal was to take the important city of Atlanta. Sherman captured Atlanta but was unable to completely destroy the Army of Tennessee. The gain of Atlanta was a major loss for the Confederacy and almost guaranteed Lincoln's reelection. It also led to the next campaign, Sherman's March to the Sea.
The Atlanta Campaign (6 May 1864 – 2 September 1864) was a series of battles during the American Civil War. The campaign was planned and executed by the Union Army under Major general Sherman. The first part of the plan was to defeat the Confederate Army of Tennessee led by General Johnston. The second goal was to take the important city of Atlanta. Sherman captured Atlanta but was unable to completely destroy the Army of Tennessee. The gain of Atlanta was a major loss for the Confederacy and almost guaranteed Lincoln's reelection. It also led to the next campaign, Sherman's March to the Sea.
Sherman's March to the Sea
Major general Sherman's March to the Sea was a military campaign following his successful Atlanta Campaign. After leaving the decimated city of Atlanta on November 16, Sherman led his troops on a destructive campaign which concluded with the capture of the port city of Savannah on December 21. It is known for its boldness as well as the sheer destruction inflicted on the south, both to its industry as well as military targets, effectively destroying the Confederate’s capacity to wage war.
Major general Sherman's March to the Sea was a military campaign following his successful Atlanta Campaign. After leaving the decimated city of Atlanta on November 16, Sherman led his troops on a destructive campaign which concluded with the capture of the port city of Savannah on December 21. It is known for its boldness as well as the sheer destruction inflicted on the south, both to its industry as well as military targets, effectively destroying the Confederate’s capacity to wage war.
The role of Lincoln
Abraham Lincoln
Lincoln was the first Republican president of the United States. When South Carolina seceded from the Union, Lincoln declared it illegal and pledged to go to war in order to protect the federal union. During the four years of the war, Lincoln steered the North to victory and authored the Emancipation proclamation, which dealt a severe blow to slavery in the United States. He was a soft-spoken man whose words were used sparingly but with great effect; his brilliance was captured in his Gettysburg Address, in which he linked the civil war to the founding principles of America in under two minutes.
Lincoln was the first Republican president of the United States. When South Carolina seceded from the Union, Lincoln declared it illegal and pledged to go to war in order to protect the federal union. During the four years of the war, Lincoln steered the North to victory and authored the Emancipation proclamation, which dealt a severe blow to slavery in the United States. He was a soft-spoken man whose words were used sparingly but with great effect; his brilliance was captured in his Gettysburg Address, in which he linked the civil war to the founding principles of America in under two minutes.
The Emancipation Proclamation
The Emancipation Proclamation was an order by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln to free slaves in 10 states. It applied to slaves in the states still in rebellion in 1863 during the American Civil War. It did not actually immediately free all slaves in those states, because those areas were still controlled by the Confederacy. It did, however, free at least 20,000 slaves immediately, and nearly all 4 million slaves as the Union army advanced into Confederate states. However, it did not actually make slavery illegal; this was done by the Thirteenth Amendment. The Proclamation made emancipation a goal of the Civil War. It also weakened efforts within England and France to officially recognize the Confederacy. This reduced the overall chance of the Confederates of winning the war, as the Proclamation removed one of the South’s only hopes of surviving a war of attrition against the North’s naval blockade.
The Emancipation Proclamation was an order by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln to free slaves in 10 states. It applied to slaves in the states still in rebellion in 1863 during the American Civil War. It did not actually immediately free all slaves in those states, because those areas were still controlled by the Confederacy. It did, however, free at least 20,000 slaves immediately, and nearly all 4 million slaves as the Union army advanced into Confederate states. However, it did not actually make slavery illegal; this was done by the Thirteenth Amendment. The Proclamation made emancipation a goal of the Civil War. It also weakened efforts within England and France to officially recognize the Confederacy. This reduced the overall chance of the Confederates of winning the war, as the Proclamation removed one of the South’s only hopes of surviving a war of attrition against the North’s naval blockade.
Abraham Lincoln and Reconstruction
In 1865, the triumphant federal government faced the problem of getting the eleven Confederate states to rejoin the Union. This process was called reconstruction and went on from 1865 to 1877. In order for reconstruction to succeed, some goals had to be achieved:
Lincoln was convinced that decisions relating to reconstruction was a presidential concern. During the war, the Constitution had given him power of pardon; he was also commander-in-chief. He realized, however, that once the war ended, his powers over American politics would be reduced considerably. If he was to control reconstruction, he would have to implement firm principles during the war. His strategic aim was consistent: to restore the Union as quickly as possible. His usual policy was to install military governors in areas that had been partially reconquered by the Union. The governors were expected to work with whatever support they had in those areas. Lincoln hoped that military government would last until enough loyal citizens could form a new government for their respective states.
Lincoln outlined his ideas for reconstruction in December 1863. He offered pardon to white Southerners who would take an oath of allegiance to the Union. By 1865, Lincoln seemed to be moving cautiously towards supporting the view that blacks should have equality before the law. He talked of giving some blacks the right to vote, especially those who had fought for the Union. In his second inauguration speech in March 1865, he spoke of malice towards none and the need for justice and lasting peace. On 14 April 1865, Lincoln was murdered by Southern actor John Wilkes Booth in the Ford Theater in Washington. Booth escaped, but within days had been tracked down and killed by Union troops. The others involved in the assassination (three men and a woman) were tried, found guilty and hanged. Most Northerners assumed that Confederate leaders were in charge of the murder, but it seemed likely that Booth came up with the plot himself. He had long wanted to strike a blow for the Southern cause.
In 1865, the triumphant federal government faced the problem of getting the eleven Confederate states to rejoin the Union. This process was called reconstruction and went on from 1865 to 1877. In order for reconstruction to succeed, some goals had to be achieved:
- A feeling of loyalty towards the Union had to be restored amongst white Southerners
- The war-torn economy of the South had to be rebuilt
- The newly freed slaves had to be given an opportunity to enjoy their newfound freedom
- On what terms should states be allowed to return to the Union?
- How should Southerners be treated?
- Should Congress or the President decide on reconstruction policy?
Lincoln was convinced that decisions relating to reconstruction was a presidential concern. During the war, the Constitution had given him power of pardon; he was also commander-in-chief. He realized, however, that once the war ended, his powers over American politics would be reduced considerably. If he was to control reconstruction, he would have to implement firm principles during the war. His strategic aim was consistent: to restore the Union as quickly as possible. His usual policy was to install military governors in areas that had been partially reconquered by the Union. The governors were expected to work with whatever support they had in those areas. Lincoln hoped that military government would last until enough loyal citizens could form a new government for their respective states.
Lincoln outlined his ideas for reconstruction in December 1863. He offered pardon to white Southerners who would take an oath of allegiance to the Union. By 1865, Lincoln seemed to be moving cautiously towards supporting the view that blacks should have equality before the law. He talked of giving some blacks the right to vote, especially those who had fought for the Union. In his second inauguration speech in March 1865, he spoke of malice towards none and the need for justice and lasting peace. On 14 April 1865, Lincoln was murdered by Southern actor John Wilkes Booth in the Ford Theater in Washington. Booth escaped, but within days had been tracked down and killed by Union troops. The others involved in the assassination (three men and a woman) were tried, found guilty and hanged. Most Northerners assumed that Confederate leaders were in charge of the murder, but it seemed likely that Booth came up with the plot himself. He had long wanted to strike a blow for the Southern cause.
Conditions in the South
By the end of the Civil War, much of the South was almost a wasteland. Much of the fighting had taken place in the South and enormous damage had been done. Buildings needed re-building, roads and railways needed re-building and the plantations had fallen into disuse. The economy had collapsed which led to soaring inflation. 'Carpetbaggers' were thought to be northern politicians who went south at the end of the war to make money and then return to the north. They took control of the state governments of the South and imposed their wishes. They introduced corrupt and spendthrift governments. They prevented the people of the South from trying to restore their towns and plantations to their former glory.
By the end of the Civil War, much of the South was almost a wasteland. Much of the fighting had taken place in the South and enormous damage had been done. Buildings needed re-building, roads and railways needed re-building and the plantations had fallen into disuse. The economy had collapsed which led to soaring inflation. 'Carpetbaggers' were thought to be northern politicians who went south at the end of the war to make money and then return to the north. They took control of the state governments of the South and imposed their wishes. They introduced corrupt and spendthrift governments. They prevented the people of the South from trying to restore their towns and plantations to their former glory.
Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction
After Lincoln's assassination, Vice President Andrew Johnson, an ex-Democrat and ex-slave owner from Tennessee, became president. Johnson had been the only senator from any of the Confederate states to stay loyal to the Union.
By May 1865, the war was effectively over. However, there were serious problems in the South:
Johnson claimed his intentions were to continue Lincoln's reconstruction policy. However, he viewed reconstruction as an executive and not a legislative function, and hoped to restore the Southern states to the Union before Congress met in December 1865. Keen that the nation should continue to function normally as soon as possible, Johnson so no alternative but to work with ex-Confederates. Committed to state rights, Johnson believed it was not the federal government's responsibility to decide on suffrage issues or involve itself in matters that states could resolve for themselves. Nor did he have any wish to promote the position of ex-slaves. Shaped by a lifetime in Tennessee, he did not consider blacks to be equal to whites and was opposed to black suffrage.
In May 1865, Johnson issued general amnesty to Southerners who were willing to swear an oath of allegiance to the Union and support emancipation. He also made several other decisions:
The Southern governments soon set about implementing Johnson's terms but searched for ways to keep freed slaves under control. Soon, Black Codes were introduced. They were designed to ensure that blacks remained second-class citizens and they all required:
The codes were enforced by a white judicial system that was hardly fair towards blacks: in Texas, five hundred whites were put on trial for the murder to blacks, and not one was convicted. The aim of reconstruction "Confederate-style" was to resurrect the old order as near as possible. Johnson did not approve of all these developments and expressed some concern for the freedmen. However, his states rights ideology gave him no alternative but to accept what had occurred. In December 1865, he announced that the work of "restoration" was complete.
After Lincoln's assassination, Vice President Andrew Johnson, an ex-Democrat and ex-slave owner from Tennessee, became president. Johnson had been the only senator from any of the Confederate states to stay loyal to the Union.
By May 1865, the war was effectively over. However, there were serious problems in the South:
- A quarter of all white Southern men of military age had died in the war. Another quarter had been seriously wounded
- The Southern economy was in tatters. Union armies had caused widespread devastation.
- The Southern banking system was in chaos.
- Large numbers of black and white Southerners were dependent on federal aid in order to afford basic necessities
Johnson claimed his intentions were to continue Lincoln's reconstruction policy. However, he viewed reconstruction as an executive and not a legislative function, and hoped to restore the Southern states to the Union before Congress met in December 1865. Keen that the nation should continue to function normally as soon as possible, Johnson so no alternative but to work with ex-Confederates. Committed to state rights, Johnson believed it was not the federal government's responsibility to decide on suffrage issues or involve itself in matters that states could resolve for themselves. Nor did he have any wish to promote the position of ex-slaves. Shaped by a lifetime in Tennessee, he did not consider blacks to be equal to whites and was opposed to black suffrage.
In May 1865, Johnson issued general amnesty to Southerners who were willing to swear an oath of allegiance to the Union and support emancipation. He also made several other decisions:
- Confiscated land would be returned to pardoned Southerners
- The Southern elite would not be punished. This would win Johnson more favor among Southerners and help maintain white supremacy in the South, an ideal that both Johnson and the Southern elite wanted to establish
- State governors would be appointed in Southern states and hold elections for state conventions which would draw up constitutions that accepted that slavery was illegal. States would be readmitted to the Union once this was done.
The Southern governments soon set about implementing Johnson's terms but searched for ways to keep freed slaves under control. Soon, Black Codes were introduced. They were designed to ensure that blacks remained second-class citizens and they all required:
- Blacks to posses labor contracts, which provided written evidence of employment. This would help keep wages low
- Black "vagrants" would be punished by involuntary plantation work
- Black children could be taken as apprentices and forcibly put to work
- Blacks were not allowed to rent or buy land, marry whites or serve on juries
- Blacks were barred from financial aid, orphanages and schools
The codes were enforced by a white judicial system that was hardly fair towards blacks: in Texas, five hundred whites were put on trial for the murder to blacks, and not one was convicted. The aim of reconstruction "Confederate-style" was to resurrect the old order as near as possible. Johnson did not approve of all these developments and expressed some concern for the freedmen. However, his states rights ideology gave him no alternative but to accept what had occurred. In December 1865, he announced that the work of "restoration" was complete.
Congressional Reconstruction
By the time Congress met in December 1865, there were misgivings about Johnson's leniency. After four years of war, Northerners distrusted the South. Unless the federal government took action, blacks would not have equal opportunities to whites. Moreover, it seemed that Southern Democrats would soon dominate the political scene. The return of the Southern states into the Union would bring 22 senators and 63 members to the houses, most of whom would be Democrats.
By the time Congress met in December 1865, there were misgivings about Johnson's leniency. After four years of war, Northerners distrusted the South. Unless the federal government took action, blacks would not have equal opportunities to whites. Moreover, it seemed that Southern Democrats would soon dominate the political scene. The return of the Southern states into the Union would bring 22 senators and 63 members to the houses, most of whom would be Democrats.
The Civil Rights Act
Moderate and radical Republicans joined forces to introduce the Civil Rights Act, which aimed to guarantee basic rights to blacks. The Civil Rights Act defined all people born in the USA as national citizens, with the exception of untaxed Native Americans. The measure also asserted the right of the federal government to intervene in state affairs and when necessary, protect the rights of these citizens. The bill virtually received the unanimous support of the Congressional Republicans. Johnson argued that civil rights were a state matter and vetoed the measure. In April 1866, two thirds of Congress ensured that Johnson's veto was overridden and the Civil Rights Act became law.
Moderate and radical Republicans joined forces to introduce the Civil Rights Act, which aimed to guarantee basic rights to blacks. The Civil Rights Act defined all people born in the USA as national citizens, with the exception of untaxed Native Americans. The measure also asserted the right of the federal government to intervene in state affairs and when necessary, protect the rights of these citizens. The bill virtually received the unanimous support of the Congressional Republicans. Johnson argued that civil rights were a state matter and vetoed the measure. In April 1866, two thirds of Congress ensured that Johnson's veto was overridden and the Civil Rights Act became law.
The Fourteenth Amendment
To ensure that the Civil Rights Act could not be changed in the future, Congress adopted the Fourteenth Amendment. This guaranteed all citizens equality before the law. If individual states tried to break the Civil Rights Act, the federal government could intervene.
To ensure that the Civil Rights Act could not be changed in the future, Congress adopted the Fourteenth Amendment. This guaranteed all citizens equality before the law. If individual states tried to break the Civil Rights Act, the federal government could intervene.
Race Riots
In the summer of 1866, there were serious race riots in the South: first in Memphis and then in New Orleans. Gangs of Southern whites attacked blacks who they considered to be rebellious. This resulted in almost one hundred black deaths. Most Northerners were appalled by this. The rise of organizations such as the Knights of the White Camelia and the Ku Klux Klan also added to the North's distrust of the South. These organizations aimed to terrorize blacks and whites who sympathized with them.
In the summer of 1866, there were serious race riots in the South: first in Memphis and then in New Orleans. Gangs of Southern whites attacked blacks who they considered to be rebellious. This resulted in almost one hundred black deaths. Most Northerners were appalled by this. The rise of organizations such as the Knights of the White Camelia and the Ku Klux Klan also added to the North's distrust of the South. These organizations aimed to terrorize blacks and whites who sympathized with them.
The 1866 Mid-Term Elections
The 1866 elections provided Johnson with an opportunity to strengthen his position. Throughout the election campaign, Johnson was confronted by hecklers: this led to him often losing his temper. Because of this, Johnson lost his presidential dignity. Hoping to unite the Democrats and Republicans, Johnson supported the National Union Convention, which soon became little more than the Democrats. The election results were a disaster for Johnson: the Republicans dominated Congress, which enabled them to effectively override any presidential veto and take over the reconstruction process.
The 1866 elections provided Johnson with an opportunity to strengthen his position. Throughout the election campaign, Johnson was confronted by hecklers: this led to him often losing his temper. Because of this, Johnson lost his presidential dignity. Hoping to unite the Democrats and Republicans, Johnson supported the National Union Convention, which soon became little more than the Democrats. The election results were a disaster for Johnson: the Republicans dominated Congress, which enabled them to effectively override any presidential veto and take over the reconstruction process.
The Military Reconstruction Act
In the spring of 1867, Congress passed a military reconstruction act. This stated that:
The bill was passed despite Johnson's veto
In the spring of 1867, Congress passed a military reconstruction act. This stated that:
- No legal government existed in any ex-Confederate state (except Tennessee)
- The ten remaining Southern states would be divided into five military districts, each placed under the rule of a federal commander
- To get back into the Union, Southern states had to elect constitutional conventions which would accept black suffrage and ratify the Fourteenth Amendment
The bill was passed despite Johnson's veto
Johnson's Trial
Republicans in the House of Representatives were convinced that Johnson had broken the law. In February 1868, they were determined to impeach him for high crimes and misdemeanors. The impeachment proceedings took place in the Senate during the spring of 1868. Johnson faced mixed charges, but essentially they were narrowed down to not cooperating with Congress. Many Republicans were out for revenge and anxious to get rid of Johnson, who they believed was trying to delay the implementation of Congress' reconstruction policy. After a two month trial, 35 senators voted against Johnson and 19 for him. This was one vote short of the two thirds majority needed to prosecute him. Johnson survived for the rest of his term, but was very much a lame-duck president. Nevertheless, he did all he could to water down Congress' actions. By December 1868, he had given pardons to most leading Southerners.
Republicans in the House of Representatives were convinced that Johnson had broken the law. In February 1868, they were determined to impeach him for high crimes and misdemeanors. The impeachment proceedings took place in the Senate during the spring of 1868. Johnson faced mixed charges, but essentially they were narrowed down to not cooperating with Congress. Many Republicans were out for revenge and anxious to get rid of Johnson, who they believed was trying to delay the implementation of Congress' reconstruction policy. After a two month trial, 35 senators voted against Johnson and 19 for him. This was one vote short of the two thirds majority needed to prosecute him. Johnson survived for the rest of his term, but was very much a lame-duck president. Nevertheless, he did all he could to water down Congress' actions. By December 1868, he had given pardons to most leading Southerners.
President Grant
In 1869, General Grant was appointed as the Republican's presidential candidate. Before the war, Grant had shown little interest in politics and voted Democrat. However, he felt honored to be nominated and ambitiously felt it was his duty to stand. His Democrat opponent, Horatio Seymour, was against black equality, so Grant won the majority of Southern black support and seized the presidency with only 52% of the popular vote.
In 1869, General Grant was appointed as the Republican's presidential candidate. Before the war, Grant had shown little interest in politics and voted Democrat. However, he felt honored to be nominated and ambitiously felt it was his duty to stand. His Democrat opponent, Horatio Seymour, was against black equality, so Grant won the majority of Southern black support and seized the presidency with only 52% of the popular vote.
The Fifteenth Amendment
In 1869, the Fifteenth Amendment was introduced. It stated that the right to vote should not be denied based on color, race or previous conditions of servitude. This way, blacks were assured civil and political equality to whites and most Republicans believed that blacks no longer possessed a claim on federal government. Their status in society would now depend on themselves.
In 1869, the Fifteenth Amendment was introduced. It stated that the right to vote should not be denied based on color, race or previous conditions of servitude. This way, blacks were assured civil and political equality to whites and most Republicans believed that blacks no longer possessed a claim on federal government. Their status in society would now depend on themselves.
White Resistance
Republican rule sparked rebellion among Southern whites determined to recover their political prowess. The Ku Klux Klan drew support from angered Southerners and was encouraged by Southern Democrat leaders to take violent actions. Some state governors appealed to Congress for help. In 1870-71, Congress passed three Force Acts, authorizing President Grant to use the army to break up the Klan. Heavy penalties were imposed on those who used force, bribery or intimidation to hinder or prevent anyone from voting.
Republican rule sparked rebellion among Southern whites determined to recover their political prowess. The Ku Klux Klan drew support from angered Southerners and was encouraged by Southern Democrat leaders to take violent actions. Some state governors appealed to Congress for help. In 1870-71, Congress passed three Force Acts, authorizing President Grant to use the army to break up the Klan. Heavy penalties were imposed on those who used force, bribery or intimidation to hinder or prevent anyone from voting.
Problems in the South
Internal feuds started to erupt within the Republican party. Heavy taxation drove white farmers away from the party. In 1873, the Republican party were blamed for the economic depression and people's misfortunes. Many Republicans felt that it was time for the South to solve its own problems. Grant took tough action against the Ku Klux Klan, but his administration had always been criticized for having a lack of commitment, vision and clear aim regarding reconstruction. However, Grant was anxious to end federal government involvement in the South and wanted to build bridges with white Southerners. Race was the dominant issue: the Republicans were the black party, and the Democrats were the white party. Many of the election campaigns in the South in the 1870s were ugly and few elections were conducted fairly.
Internal feuds started to erupt within the Republican party. Heavy taxation drove white farmers away from the party. In 1873, the Republican party were blamed for the economic depression and people's misfortunes. Many Republicans felt that it was time for the South to solve its own problems. Grant took tough action against the Ku Klux Klan, but his administration had always been criticized for having a lack of commitment, vision and clear aim regarding reconstruction. However, Grant was anxious to end federal government involvement in the South and wanted to build bridges with white Southerners. Race was the dominant issue: the Republicans were the black party, and the Democrats were the white party. Many of the election campaigns in the South in the 1870s were ugly and few elections were conducted fairly.
The 1876 Election
The 1876 presidential election is often seen as the end of the reconstruction period. The Republican candidate was Rutherford B. Hayes, and the Democrat candidate Samuel Tilden. The election results caused widespread disruption across the North and South: Democrats claimed the Republicans had manipulated the vote and that blacks had voted multiple times. Republicans accused the Democrats of preventing blacks from voting at all. The dispute lingered over the winter and some Southerners talked about fighting another civil war to make sure Samuel Tilden became president. The 1877 Compromise ended the crisis: the Democrats would accept Hayes as president, and in return Hayes would withdraw all troops from the South, recognize Democratic government in three disputed states, appoint a Southerner to his cabinet and look kindly on Southern railroad interest. As a result, South Carolina, Florida and Louisiana immediately fell under Democrat control. By 1877, all ex-Confederate states had returned to white rule. Hayes appointed a Southerner to his cabinet, and visited the South on a goodwill tour. However, Hayes' actions did not mark an abrupt change in policy; they only confirmed what had been done earlier by Congress or Grant.
The 1876 presidential election is often seen as the end of the reconstruction period. The Republican candidate was Rutherford B. Hayes, and the Democrat candidate Samuel Tilden. The election results caused widespread disruption across the North and South: Democrats claimed the Republicans had manipulated the vote and that blacks had voted multiple times. Republicans accused the Democrats of preventing blacks from voting at all. The dispute lingered over the winter and some Southerners talked about fighting another civil war to make sure Samuel Tilden became president. The 1877 Compromise ended the crisis: the Democrats would accept Hayes as president, and in return Hayes would withdraw all troops from the South, recognize Democratic government in three disputed states, appoint a Southerner to his cabinet and look kindly on Southern railroad interest. As a result, South Carolina, Florida and Louisiana immediately fell under Democrat control. By 1877, all ex-Confederate states had returned to white rule. Hayes appointed a Southerner to his cabinet, and visited the South on a goodwill tour. However, Hayes' actions did not mark an abrupt change in policy; they only confirmed what had been done earlier by Congress or Grant.
Civil War Era Presidents
How successful was reconstruction
The reconstruction period is usually thought of as a positive era. However, it held both pros and cons:
Successes
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Failures
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