Section 3: How was Germany unified?
Focus Points
- Why was Germany not unified in 1848-50?
- How did Bismarck bring about Austria's defeat of 1866?
- How did Bismarck bring about France's defeat of 1870?
- How far was Bismarck responsible for the unification of Germany?
German nationalism
The years 1815-48 are often called the Vormarz or pre-March (a prelude to the March 1848 revolutions in Berlin). This period is also known as the Restoration. The Vormarz is often seen as a period of illiberality and repression. However, it also saw the development of German liberalism and nationalism.
The defeat of Napoleon was an encouragement to German nationalism. In the decades after 1815, thousands of young, middle and upper class Germans longed for a united Germany to give visible form to their strongly held sense of national identity. Students joined Burschenschaften societies which campaigned for a united Germany. Many nationalists were liberals and vice versa. Most liberals believed that only a united Germany could ensure that liberal aspirations would be achieved.
The years 1815-48 are often called the Vormarz or pre-March (a prelude to the March 1848 revolutions in Berlin). This period is also known as the Restoration. The Vormarz is often seen as a period of illiberality and repression. However, it also saw the development of German liberalism and nationalism.
The defeat of Napoleon was an encouragement to German nationalism. In the decades after 1815, thousands of young, middle and upper class Germans longed for a united Germany to give visible form to their strongly held sense of national identity. Students joined Burschenschaften societies which campaigned for a united Germany. Many nationalists were liberals and vice versa. Most liberals believed that only a united Germany could ensure that liberal aspirations would be achieved.
The Zollverein
It started in 1818 and by 1836 had 25 states involved. It gave Prussia influence over these states as Prussia was the catalyst behind the Zollverein. The economy of Prussia thrived under the Zollverein. This promoted trade by easing the problems caused by the different taxes and customs paid at the many borders that goods passed through. It also standardized the three different currencies used in the German states. Austria was not part of the Zollverein and, therefore, did not have the economic influence over the member German states. The German states also started to invest more in infrastructure such as railroads, canals and road networks. Prussia benefited because it was part of a tariff-free zone among members which encouraged trade. However, this rapid industrialization also brought on some negative changes: farmers were forced to survive on too little land, artisans lost their jobs to factories and industrialization. Diseases like typhoid and cholera spread over towns and cities because of rapid urbanization which led to overpopulation. Immigration increased, with people fleeing Germany to start a new life elsewhere, most popularly the United States. The situation was made worse in the 1840s with an economic downturn and several years of bad harvests.
It started in 1818 and by 1836 had 25 states involved. It gave Prussia influence over these states as Prussia was the catalyst behind the Zollverein. The economy of Prussia thrived under the Zollverein. This promoted trade by easing the problems caused by the different taxes and customs paid at the many borders that goods passed through. It also standardized the three different currencies used in the German states. Austria was not part of the Zollverein and, therefore, did not have the economic influence over the member German states. The German states also started to invest more in infrastructure such as railroads, canals and road networks. Prussia benefited because it was part of a tariff-free zone among members which encouraged trade. However, this rapid industrialization also brought on some negative changes: farmers were forced to survive on too little land, artisans lost their jobs to factories and industrialization. Diseases like typhoid and cholera spread over towns and cities because of rapid urbanization which led to overpopulation. Immigration increased, with people fleeing Germany to start a new life elsewhere, most popularly the United States. The situation was made worse in the 1840s with an economic downturn and several years of bad harvests.
The 1848 revolution in Prussia
After the French revolutions in France, there were many minor riots in German states. Austria and Prussia expected to crush these revolts as they were the two biggest states, but the revolution in Vienna led to the fall of Metternich. Not only were there riots in Austria, Prussia was also affected by the Berlin riots. Like his father, Frederick William IV was opposed to giving the people a constitution. On March 13 there was a demonstration by workers in the palace square in Berlin. Demonstrators threw stones at the troops and the troops responded by opening fire. On March 18 a large crowd gathered outside the royal palace. The King appeared on the balcony and was cheered by the crowds. The troops were ordered to disperse the crowd. Shots were fired by the troops either in panic or by accident after some jostling had taken place. Students and workers immediately set up barricades and serious fighting broke out. At least 300 rioters were killed as troops took control of the city. There was street fighting and barricades were drawn up. The King agreed to withdraw the troops if the barricades were removed and set up a Prussian Assembly. The elected radical revolutionaries wanted to unite the German states in order to create a country that could rival Russia. The Assembly also wanted to grant Polish people in Germany self-government. The King did not like this at all; he decided that the democratic experiment had gone on long enough and dissolved the Prussian Assembly. Germany could not be unified while differences in the political aims of liberals and radicals were unresolved. The liberals wanted constitutional government in all states and a united Empire with a national parliament. The radicals wanted complete social and political change within a republican framework. There was also disunity amongst the nationalists as they could not agree on the form a new Germany should take – unified state or federation, monarchy or republic, Grossdeutschland or Kleindeutschland.
After the French revolutions in France, there were many minor riots in German states. Austria and Prussia expected to crush these revolts as they were the two biggest states, but the revolution in Vienna led to the fall of Metternich. Not only were there riots in Austria, Prussia was also affected by the Berlin riots. Like his father, Frederick William IV was opposed to giving the people a constitution. On March 13 there was a demonstration by workers in the palace square in Berlin. Demonstrators threw stones at the troops and the troops responded by opening fire. On March 18 a large crowd gathered outside the royal palace. The King appeared on the balcony and was cheered by the crowds. The troops were ordered to disperse the crowd. Shots were fired by the troops either in panic or by accident after some jostling had taken place. Students and workers immediately set up barricades and serious fighting broke out. At least 300 rioters were killed as troops took control of the city. There was street fighting and barricades were drawn up. The King agreed to withdraw the troops if the barricades were removed and set up a Prussian Assembly. The elected radical revolutionaries wanted to unite the German states in order to create a country that could rival Russia. The Assembly also wanted to grant Polish people in Germany self-government. The King did not like this at all; he decided that the democratic experiment had gone on long enough and dissolved the Prussian Assembly. Germany could not be unified while differences in the political aims of liberals and radicals were unresolved. The liberals wanted constitutional government in all states and a united Empire with a national parliament. The radicals wanted complete social and political change within a republican framework. There was also disunity amongst the nationalists as they could not agree on the form a new Germany should take – unified state or federation, monarchy or republic, Grossdeutschland or Kleindeutschland.
The setting up and eventual failure of the Frankfurt Parliament
The 1848 revolutions inspired a nationalist movement in Germany. In May 1848, a group of German nationalists met at the Frankfurt Parliament. The Frankfurt Parliament consisted of representatives from all of the small Prussian states. German liberals were overjoyed and the assembly decided that there would be universal suffrage and delegates from mostly the middle class. This Assembly wanted to create a unified Germany that was liberal and constitutionally governed. They argued over various topics, such as wether the new Germany would have a Prussian or Austrian ruler. Due to having different ideas and opinions, rarely anything got solved and this was a huge problem. There were arguments for a bigger Germany, including Austria, or a smaller Germany, not consisting of Austria. This argument led to a big crisis known as the Constitutional Crisis.
In December 1848, the Frankfurt Parliament released the Declaration of Rights of the German People, based on similar declarations made in France and the United States. The German declaration ignored the universal rights of mankind, focusing purely on Germany.
In 1849, Germany was offered to Frederick William IV. He coveted the territory but knew that acceptance would lead to a war with Austria. Also, he did not want to be a constitutional monarch and he therefore turned the offer down. Frederick William IV believed in divine rule: he wanted the right to rule to come directly from God, not from the consent of the people. The Frankfurt Parliament therefore fell apart in April 1849 and did not make any changes. Germany remained fragmented after the revolutions, and the rulers of the German states came back into power.
The 1848 revolutions inspired a nationalist movement in Germany. In May 1848, a group of German nationalists met at the Frankfurt Parliament. The Frankfurt Parliament consisted of representatives from all of the small Prussian states. German liberals were overjoyed and the assembly decided that there would be universal suffrage and delegates from mostly the middle class. This Assembly wanted to create a unified Germany that was liberal and constitutionally governed. They argued over various topics, such as wether the new Germany would have a Prussian or Austrian ruler. Due to having different ideas and opinions, rarely anything got solved and this was a huge problem. There were arguments for a bigger Germany, including Austria, or a smaller Germany, not consisting of Austria. This argument led to a big crisis known as the Constitutional Crisis.
In December 1848, the Frankfurt Parliament released the Declaration of Rights of the German People, based on similar declarations made in France and the United States. The German declaration ignored the universal rights of mankind, focusing purely on Germany.
In 1849, Germany was offered to Frederick William IV. He coveted the territory but knew that acceptance would lead to a war with Austria. Also, he did not want to be a constitutional monarch and he therefore turned the offer down. Frederick William IV believed in divine rule: he wanted the right to rule to come directly from God, not from the consent of the people. The Frankfurt Parliament therefore fell apart in April 1849 and did not make any changes. Germany remained fragmented after the revolutions, and the rulers of the German states came back into power.
Reestablishment of Austrian influence in Germany by 1850
Austrian influence had been reestablished in 1850 because of the failure of the Prussian Erfurt Union plan. Despite his rejection of the imperial crown offered to him by the Frankfurt Parliament, Frederick William still wanted to unite Germany with himself at its head. In 1849 General Radowitz came up with the Prussian Union Plan. He proposed a Kleindeutschreich under Prussian leadership. Austria would not be part of the Kleindeutschreich. In addition, there would be a German Union - a confederation between the new Reich and the Austrian empire. The plan was not accepted by the Austria Chief Minister Schwarzenberg who saw it as a way of removing Austria influence from Germany. However, he wanted to stall because of problems in the Austrian empire at the time. The Prussian army, the strongest in Germany in 1849, was able to pursue the plan with some success. In March 1850 representatives form most of the German states met at Erfurt at Prussia's command and 28 of them agreed to the creation of a Prussian-dominated Erfurt Union. Several states, suspicious of Prussia's ambitions and fearful of Austria's reaction, declined. Schwarzenberg, having suppressed the Hungarian uprising, was ready to reassert Austria's position in Germany and summonsed the Diet of the Confederation to meet in Frankfurt in May 1850. Suddenly the Confederation, thought to be dead, was alive and well. By the spring of 1850, there were two assemblies claiming to speak for Germany: the Erfurt Parliament (led by Prussia) and the Frankfurt Diet (led by Austria). An uprising in Hesse-Cassel, a member state of the Erfurt Parliament prompted its ruler to request help from the Frankfurt Diet and Bavarian troops were sent to restore order. The Erfurt Parliament also claimed the right to intervene and dispatched Prussian troops. Prussia backed down on the brink of conflict with Confederation troops.
Austrian influence had been reestablished in 1850 because of the failure of the Prussian Erfurt Union plan. Despite his rejection of the imperial crown offered to him by the Frankfurt Parliament, Frederick William still wanted to unite Germany with himself at its head. In 1849 General Radowitz came up with the Prussian Union Plan. He proposed a Kleindeutschreich under Prussian leadership. Austria would not be part of the Kleindeutschreich. In addition, there would be a German Union - a confederation between the new Reich and the Austrian empire. The plan was not accepted by the Austria Chief Minister Schwarzenberg who saw it as a way of removing Austria influence from Germany. However, he wanted to stall because of problems in the Austrian empire at the time. The Prussian army, the strongest in Germany in 1849, was able to pursue the plan with some success. In March 1850 representatives form most of the German states met at Erfurt at Prussia's command and 28 of them agreed to the creation of a Prussian-dominated Erfurt Union. Several states, suspicious of Prussia's ambitions and fearful of Austria's reaction, declined. Schwarzenberg, having suppressed the Hungarian uprising, was ready to reassert Austria's position in Germany and summonsed the Diet of the Confederation to meet in Frankfurt in May 1850. Suddenly the Confederation, thought to be dead, was alive and well. By the spring of 1850, there were two assemblies claiming to speak for Germany: the Erfurt Parliament (led by Prussia) and the Frankfurt Diet (led by Austria). An uprising in Hesse-Cassel, a member state of the Erfurt Parliament prompted its ruler to request help from the Frankfurt Diet and Bavarian troops were sent to restore order. The Erfurt Parliament also claimed the right to intervene and dispatched Prussian troops. Prussia backed down on the brink of conflict with Confederation troops.
The Treaty of Olmütz
In November 1850, Frederick William agreed to dissolve the Erfurt Union at Olmütz. The Treaty of Olmütz restored the Bund under Austrian leadership and Austria had reasserted its leadership as Prussia backed down. The 1848 revolution was finally crushed and the princes were back on their thrones. Austria proposed an Austrian-dominated 'Middle Europe', incorporating all the German states and the Hapsburg Empire, but this was rejected. The Treaty resulted in the revival of the old German Confederation under the leadership of Austria, and the abandonment by Prussia as the leader of the proposed but then defunct Erfurt Union. Had the Erfurt Union come to fruition, Prussia would have been the dominant German state; however with the collapse of the Union and the signing of the Punctation, Austria became the leading German state. The treaty was considered a complete capitulation by Prussia to Austria, so much so that the Treaty became known as the "Humiliation of Olmütz." Needless to say, Austria's success was shortlived; Prussia under Otto von Bismarck soon united the German states under Prussian leadership to the exclusion of Austria.
In November 1850, Frederick William agreed to dissolve the Erfurt Union at Olmütz. The Treaty of Olmütz restored the Bund under Austrian leadership and Austria had reasserted its leadership as Prussia backed down. The 1848 revolution was finally crushed and the princes were back on their thrones. Austria proposed an Austrian-dominated 'Middle Europe', incorporating all the German states and the Hapsburg Empire, but this was rejected. The Treaty resulted in the revival of the old German Confederation under the leadership of Austria, and the abandonment by Prussia as the leader of the proposed but then defunct Erfurt Union. Had the Erfurt Union come to fruition, Prussia would have been the dominant German state; however with the collapse of the Union and the signing of the Punctation, Austria became the leading German state. The treaty was considered a complete capitulation by Prussia to Austria, so much so that the Treaty became known as the "Humiliation of Olmütz." Needless to say, Austria's success was shortlived; Prussia under Otto von Bismarck soon united the German states under Prussian leadership to the exclusion of Austria.
Bismarck as Prussian Minister-President
Because of this crisis, the king appointed a new chief minister - Bismarck - to help solve it. Bismarck came into office in September 1862 and claimed that he would not unify Germany using speeches or votes - but by iron and blood, meaning war. He said that the Frankfurt Parliament was a big problem because of all the different opinions of the states. His main aim was initially Prussian domination of north Germany, but he did not oppose German nationalism and hoped he might be able to use it as an advantage. He was determined to make Prussia the best and was successful because he used force. Moltke’s and von Roon’s military reforms made the Prussian army the most feared in Europe:
Austria was defeated within seven weeks. France was trying to gain territory and was goaded into war by Bismarck. The result was inevitable as the Prussians cut the French forces to pieces. However, Germany was not only unified by iron and blood - Bismarck used his negotiating skills in peace agreements such as the victory against Austria. Bismarck was successful because he benefited from the success of the Zollverein, which helped integrate the economies of north and central Germany. There were other several factors that helped Bismarck:
Because of this crisis, the king appointed a new chief minister - Bismarck - to help solve it. Bismarck came into office in September 1862 and claimed that he would not unify Germany using speeches or votes - but by iron and blood, meaning war. He said that the Frankfurt Parliament was a big problem because of all the different opinions of the states. His main aim was initially Prussian domination of north Germany, but he did not oppose German nationalism and hoped he might be able to use it as an advantage. He was determined to make Prussia the best and was successful because he used force. Moltke’s and von Roon’s military reforms made the Prussian army the most feared in Europe:
- They set up a General Staff to organize the army and plan its methods of fighting
- The General Staff encouraged subordinate commanders to take responsibility for decisions
- Prussian soldiers spent 2 years with the colors, 4 years with the reserves and 5½ years with the militia
- This produced a field army of 500 000 and a vast reserve of trained men
- They introduced new weaponry including the needle-gun and much field artillery
Austria was defeated within seven weeks. France was trying to gain territory and was goaded into war by Bismarck. The result was inevitable as the Prussians cut the French forces to pieces. However, Germany was not only unified by iron and blood - Bismarck used his negotiating skills in peace agreements such as the victory against Austria. Bismarck was successful because he benefited from the success of the Zollverein, which helped integrate the economies of north and central Germany. There were other several factors that helped Bismarck:
- After Bismarck was appointed, there were three short wars: Denmark in 1864, Austria in 1866, and France in 1870-71. During this time, the army had improved: their forces had increased, and they were better trained and armed. They had prepared plans for mobilization and military operations, and they were also quick to see potential in railways
- Not only did the economy grow rapidly between 1850 and 1860, an extensive railway network was also founded in Prussia
- Industry had grown rapidly: by 1860, Prussia was producing more coal and steel than France and Australia
- Most German middle-class were nationalists and were starting to see an emerging German culture; they were also fearful of French expansion and most liberals had nationalist views
Schleswig-Holstein
When King Frederick VII of Denmark died in 1863, the throne passed to Christian IX. He proclaimed a new constitution that sought to annex Schleswig and Holstein. However, Schleswig, which was made up of a mixture of German and Danish people, and Holstein, which was purely German, did not support this and henceforth put forward the German Duke of Augustenburg, a move which German nationalists supported. When Christian IX incorporated Schleswig into Denmark in 1863, he violated the Treaty of London and the German Confederation sent an army into Holstein. Bismarck had to convince the other Great Powers to stay out of the conflict. His argument was that since the majority of the population in the provinces was German, it was Germany's responsibility to solve the crisis. In the midst of this crisis, Bismarck saw several opportunities:
Bismarck convinced Austria to help him convince Christian IX to revoke the constitution. He refused and Austria and Prussia waged war on Denmark. In 1864, Austria and Prussia both moved their troops into the duchies. However, they had very different aims: Austria supported Augustenburg and was happy share the spoils of the war. Bismarck, however, only implied that he supported Augustenburg, keeping his own expansionist agenda separate. Denmark surrendered after three months of severely losing and failed to win any support. Denmark sought for a European conference to resolve the situation. However, the London Conference failed to reach any agreement. Denmark had been counting on support from Britain, who did not offer it, so the Convention of Gastein was created. It decided the following:
When King Frederick VII of Denmark died in 1863, the throne passed to Christian IX. He proclaimed a new constitution that sought to annex Schleswig and Holstein. However, Schleswig, which was made up of a mixture of German and Danish people, and Holstein, which was purely German, did not support this and henceforth put forward the German Duke of Augustenburg, a move which German nationalists supported. When Christian IX incorporated Schleswig into Denmark in 1863, he violated the Treaty of London and the German Confederation sent an army into Holstein. Bismarck had to convince the other Great Powers to stay out of the conflict. His argument was that since the majority of the population in the provinces was German, it was Germany's responsibility to solve the crisis. In the midst of this crisis, Bismarck saw several opportunities:
- He had wanted to annex Schleswig and Holstein in order to increase Prussian power
- He allied with Austria, who supported Augustenburg
- He did not care about the duchies; he wanted to expand Germany's land and take all the credit
- He had the ability to spy on Austria's army while fighting alongside her
Bismarck convinced Austria to help him convince Christian IX to revoke the constitution. He refused and Austria and Prussia waged war on Denmark. In 1864, Austria and Prussia both moved their troops into the duchies. However, they had very different aims: Austria supported Augustenburg and was happy share the spoils of the war. Bismarck, however, only implied that he supported Augustenburg, keeping his own expansionist agenda separate. Denmark surrendered after three months of severely losing and failed to win any support. Denmark sought for a European conference to resolve the situation. However, the London Conference failed to reach any agreement. Denmark had been counting on support from Britain, who did not offer it, so the Convention of Gastein was created. It decided the following:
- Prussia would administer Schleswig
- Austria would administer Holstein
The Austro-Prussian War
Because Austria and Prussia could not agree on how to govern Schleswig-Holstein, they decided to split the territories with Austria being responsible for Holstein. Bismarck may have done this deliberately to make it easier to pick an argument with Austria. Bismarck put Austria in a difficult position and disputes erupted between Prussia and Austria. By 1865, the tension had increased to a critical point. However, Austria was financially bankrupt, and German king William I did not want to fight Austria, so neither declared war at this stage. By this point, however, Bismarck knew that war against Austria was inevitable and deliberately rose tension by proposing a reform of the German Confederation.
On June 1, 1866, Austria broke the terms of the Gastein agreement: she appealed to the German Confederation to settle the future of the duchies. Because of this, Prussia declared that the Gastein convention had been nullified and invaded Holstein. This made Austria even angrier and she demanded that the Confederation take armed action. On June 14, they agreed, and the war began.
Bismarck had already made war preparations:
Also, Austria was already at a huge disadvantage:
Prussian troops soon advanced to Bohemia and Austria were not able to catch up in time because of their inferior rail network. But the major battle of the war was in July at Sadowa. Prussian troops had a rate of fire that was five times greater than that of the Austrians'. The Prussians won a great victory.
Because Austria and Prussia could not agree on how to govern Schleswig-Holstein, they decided to split the territories with Austria being responsible for Holstein. Bismarck may have done this deliberately to make it easier to pick an argument with Austria. Bismarck put Austria in a difficult position and disputes erupted between Prussia and Austria. By 1865, the tension had increased to a critical point. However, Austria was financially bankrupt, and German king William I did not want to fight Austria, so neither declared war at this stage. By this point, however, Bismarck knew that war against Austria was inevitable and deliberately rose tension by proposing a reform of the German Confederation.
On June 1, 1866, Austria broke the terms of the Gastein agreement: she appealed to the German Confederation to settle the future of the duchies. Because of this, Prussia declared that the Gastein convention had been nullified and invaded Holstein. This made Austria even angrier and she demanded that the Confederation take armed action. On June 14, they agreed, and the war began.
Bismarck had already made war preparations:
- By helping Russia suppress the Polish uprising, Bismarck had secured an alliance with Russia by 1863
- Bismarck met the French Emperor to get the promise of French neutrality in the event of an Austro-Prussian war
- An agreement between Bismarck and Italy offering Venetia if Italy attacked Austria was put in place with Bismarck hoping Italy would pin down the bulk of the Austrian army
Also, Austria was already at a huge disadvantage:
- Prussia had the ability to mobilize and deploy quickly using their rail network; Austria had a poor railroad
- Prussia had better technology and superior firepower
- Even though Prussia's military had improved greatly, Austria had more men (400,000) than Prussia's 300,000. However, when Italy got involved, Austria had to divide their men and they lost their advantage
- The involvement of Italy would force Austria into a war on two fronts
Prussian troops soon advanced to Bohemia and Austria were not able to catch up in time because of their inferior rail network. But the major battle of the war was in July at Sadowa. Prussian troops had a rate of fire that was five times greater than that of the Austrians'. The Prussians won a great victory.
The Peace of Prague
Bismarck tried to avoid humiliating Austria too much after her defeat. He did not want Austria to feel any desire for revenge against Prussia - this may have led to Austria allying with Prussia's enemies, especially France. Austria had to pay a small indemnity to Prussia, give Venetia to Italy, and acknowledge Austria's permanent separation from Bismarck's newly created Northern German Confederation. Prussia obtained several territories: Hanover, Nassau, Hesse-Cassel, Frankfurt, and total control of Schleswig-Holstein and the rest of northern Germany. The North German Confederation was formed in 1867 after majority of the northern states united with Prussia in the Seven Weeks War. The King of Prussia became the president of this new Confederation and Bismarck the Chancellor.
Bismarck tried to avoid humiliating Austria too much after her defeat. He did not want Austria to feel any desire for revenge against Prussia - this may have led to Austria allying with Prussia's enemies, especially France. Austria had to pay a small indemnity to Prussia, give Venetia to Italy, and acknowledge Austria's permanent separation from Bismarck's newly created Northern German Confederation. Prussia obtained several territories: Hanover, Nassau, Hesse-Cassel, Frankfurt, and total control of Schleswig-Holstein and the rest of northern Germany. The North German Confederation was formed in 1867 after majority of the northern states united with Prussia in the Seven Weeks War. The King of Prussia became the president of this new Confederation and Bismarck the Chancellor.
Relations with France
After the war between Austria and Prussia, Napoleon III of France began to realize how powerful Prussia was becoming. This alarmed France and a unified Germany was seen as a threat. Napoleon III tried to ally Italy with Austria instead of Prussia, and Bismarck did not do anything to stop him until he realized that Napoleon III had massive popular approval and he would try to turn others against Prussia. Bismarck decided that he would soon have to provoke war with France. The presence of French troops in Rome was a barrier to French-Italian friendship as its removal would anger French Catholics. Bismarck also secured the assurance of over 100,000 Russian troops if Austria went to war against Prussia alongside France. However, Austria was not anxious to risk another clash with Prussia.
After the war between Austria and Prussia, Napoleon III of France began to realize how powerful Prussia was becoming. This alarmed France and a unified Germany was seen as a threat. Napoleon III tried to ally Italy with Austria instead of Prussia, and Bismarck did not do anything to stop him until he realized that Napoleon III had massive popular approval and he would try to turn others against Prussia. Bismarck decided that he would soon have to provoke war with France. The presence of French troops in Rome was a barrier to French-Italian friendship as its removal would anger French Catholics. Bismarck also secured the assurance of over 100,000 Russian troops if Austria went to war against Prussia alongside France. However, Austria was not anxious to risk another clash with Prussia.
Spanish Succession
In 1870 the Spanish throne opened up and it was offered to Prince Leopold who happened to be the cousin of the King of Prussia. The French, afraid that Prussia would amass so much dominance in Europe if Leopold took the crown took a strong stance against the offering of the throne to him. Napoleon III asked Leopold to turn the offer down, which he eventually did but Napoleon III went further requesting a meeting with King William of Prussia. The French ambassador and King William meet at Ems, a resort where he (the ambassador) demanded that no relative of William’s is to take to the throne of Spain. The King of Prussia took notes from the meeting which he sent to Bismarck who then altered it to make it seem as if the King dismissed the ambassador offensively and contemptuously. He then dispatched the altered report to the newspapers. Napoleon III was urged by his people to declare war, and he did so on July 19, 1870.
In 1870 the Spanish throne opened up and it was offered to Prince Leopold who happened to be the cousin of the King of Prussia. The French, afraid that Prussia would amass so much dominance in Europe if Leopold took the crown took a strong stance against the offering of the throne to him. Napoleon III asked Leopold to turn the offer down, which he eventually did but Napoleon III went further requesting a meeting with King William of Prussia. The French ambassador and King William meet at Ems, a resort where he (the ambassador) demanded that no relative of William’s is to take to the throne of Spain. The King of Prussia took notes from the meeting which he sent to Bismarck who then altered it to make it seem as if the King dismissed the ambassador offensively and contemptuously. He then dispatched the altered report to the newspapers. Napoleon III was urged by his people to declare war, and he did so on July 19, 1870.
The Franco-Prussian War
At the beginning of the war, France was already at a disadvantage:
Paris' people rose in revolution after they heard of Napoleon's defeat. German armies laid siege to Paris in September 1870. The city soon became short on food and signed the Armistice of Versailles on January 28, 1871. The signing of the armistice ended the active phase of the Franco-Prussian war. The revolution in Paris led to the formation of the Third French Republic.
At the beginning of the war, France was already at a disadvantage:
- The Germans were quicker than the French in terms of mobilization
- The Germans had six railway lines to the French's two
- Bismarck had called on southern Germany for support: because of their combined forces, they had twice as many men as the French
- The Germans had fifteen army corps against eight French ones
Paris' people rose in revolution after they heard of Napoleon's defeat. German armies laid siege to Paris in September 1870. The city soon became short on food and signed the Armistice of Versailles on January 28, 1871. The signing of the armistice ended the active phase of the Franco-Prussian war. The revolution in Paris led to the formation of the Third French Republic.
The Treaty of Frankfurt
The Treaty of Frankfurt was signed in May 1871 and decided the following:
However, Bismarck wanted to weaken France so that they could not be a threat in the future. He had also portrayed France as the guilty country, so most Germans believed that they (the French) should be punished.
The Treaty of Frankfurt was signed in May 1871 and decided the following:
- Alsace was put under German control, with the exception of the city of Belfort and its territory. France was permitted to keep Belfort in exchange for a German victory parade through Paris.
- Lorraine was put under German control
- It was decided that France would have to pay Germany a war indemnity of five billion francs within five years; areas in France were also put under German military occupation under the indemnity was paid
However, Bismarck wanted to weaken France so that they could not be a threat in the future. He had also portrayed France as the guilty country, so most Germans believed that they (the French) should be punished.
The Role of Bismarck
France played a vital role when remaining neutral during the Austro-Prussian War. This meant Prussia could become the dominant state amongst the Germanic states and meant Austria had no further part to play in a future Germany.
Indirectly, France played a role because the southern states were persuaded to join the other Germanic states because Bismarck had suggested France might threaten them in the future. Bismarck played an important role. He was a great opportunist and planner. He had built up Prussian forces and industry ready for possible conflict. He was able to isolate foreign opponents and persuade German states they were stronger when united. Bismarck analyzed the strengths and weaknesses of European countries and developed his foreign policy around this. He could have pressed for the unification of all Germany in 1866, but he believed that if Prussia absorbed too much territory at once this would cause problems. Austria’s defeat was followed by lenient treatment at the Treaty of Prague, thus ensuring neutrality if Prussia and France went to war. However, unification did not happen just because of Bismarck: the development of an integrated economy was important. Also, German nationalism dated back to the Napoleonic Wars. Bismarck was not born until 1815 and did not enter the political scene until 1848. This means that he had no influence over the German states during this time. The development of an integrated economy was aided by the Zollverein. In Prussia there was rapid industrial growth using the natural resources of coal and iron ore and this stimulated economic growth. This industry also enabled the development of a railway system, giving rapid mobilization of troops and equipment. This financial strength and these physical resources were of great value on the battlefield against Austria.
France played a vital role when remaining neutral during the Austro-Prussian War. This meant Prussia could become the dominant state amongst the Germanic states and meant Austria had no further part to play in a future Germany.
Indirectly, France played a role because the southern states were persuaded to join the other Germanic states because Bismarck had suggested France might threaten them in the future. Bismarck played an important role. He was a great opportunist and planner. He had built up Prussian forces and industry ready for possible conflict. He was able to isolate foreign opponents and persuade German states they were stronger when united. Bismarck analyzed the strengths and weaknesses of European countries and developed his foreign policy around this. He could have pressed for the unification of all Germany in 1866, but he believed that if Prussia absorbed too much territory at once this would cause problems. Austria’s defeat was followed by lenient treatment at the Treaty of Prague, thus ensuring neutrality if Prussia and France went to war. However, unification did not happen just because of Bismarck: the development of an integrated economy was important. Also, German nationalism dated back to the Napoleonic Wars. Bismarck was not born until 1815 and did not enter the political scene until 1848. This means that he had no influence over the German states during this time. The development of an integrated economy was aided by the Zollverein. In Prussia there was rapid industrial growth using the natural resources of coal and iron ore and this stimulated economic growth. This industry also enabled the development of a railway system, giving rapid mobilization of troops and equipment. This financial strength and these physical resources were of great value on the battlefield against Austria.
The Creation of the German Empire
Bismarck wanted the German states to have a constitution similar to that of the Northern German Confederation, but for that he would have to make southern German rulers agree to it. They wanted a more easygoing confederation so that their people could have more rights. Bismarck called on German people and told them he would take away the rulers who stood in the way of their unity. This persuaded the rulers to take action and they all joined the German Empire by signing separate treaties by November 1870. King Ludwig II of Bavaria was bribed into joining the German Empire by Bismarck. On 18 January 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors, Palace of Versailles, Paris, France, Kaiser Wilhelm I was proclaimed the ruler of a new and united Germany.
Bismarck wanted the German states to have a constitution similar to that of the Northern German Confederation, but for that he would have to make southern German rulers agree to it. They wanted a more easygoing confederation so that their people could have more rights. Bismarck called on German people and told them he would take away the rulers who stood in the way of their unity. This persuaded the rulers to take action and they all joined the German Empire by signing separate treaties by November 1870. King Ludwig II of Bavaria was bribed into joining the German Empire by Bismarck. On 18 January 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors, Palace of Versailles, Paris, France, Kaiser Wilhelm I was proclaimed the ruler of a new and united Germany.