Section 6: What caused the First World War?
Focus Points
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Main People
Franz-Ferdinand: The archduke of Austria, and the heir to the Hapsburg throne
Franz Joseph I: The emperor of Austria-Hungary until his death in late 1916
Nicholas II: The Russian tsar who committed Russia to the defense of Serbia when Serbia was attacked by Austria
Gavrilo Princip: A teenage Serbian militant who was responsible for the assassination of archduke Franz-Ferdinand
Wilhelm II: The German kaiser (emperor) during the war
Woodrow Wilson: President of the United States for the entire war
Franz-Ferdinand: The archduke of Austria, and the heir to the Hapsburg throne
Franz Joseph I: The emperor of Austria-Hungary until his death in late 1916
Nicholas II: The Russian tsar who committed Russia to the defense of Serbia when Serbia was attacked by Austria
Gavrilo Princip: A teenage Serbian militant who was responsible for the assassination of archduke Franz-Ferdinand
Wilhelm II: The German kaiser (emperor) during the war
Woodrow Wilson: President of the United States for the entire war
The Alliance System
Countries
German-Austrian German-Austrian-Italian Franco-Russian Anglo-Japanese Anglo-French Anglo-Russian-French |
Alliance
Dual Alliance Triple Alliance Non-Agression Pact Non-Agression Pact Entente Cordiale Triple Entente |
Year
1879 1882 1894 1902 1904 1907 |
The Dual Alliance
The Dual Alliance was a defensive alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary, which was created by treaty on 7 October 1879 as part of Bismarck's system of alliances to prevent/limit war. In it, Germany and Austria-Hungary pledged to aid one another in case of an attack by Russia. Also, each state promised benevolent neutrality to the other if one of them was attacked by another European power (generally taken to be France, even more so after the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1892).
The Dual Alliance was a defensive alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary, which was created by treaty on 7 October 1879 as part of Bismarck's system of alliances to prevent/limit war. In it, Germany and Austria-Hungary pledged to aid one another in case of an attack by Russia. Also, each state promised benevolent neutrality to the other if one of them was attacked by another European power (generally taken to be France, even more so after the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1892).
The Triple Alliance
The man chiefly responsible for the Triple Alliance was Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of Germany. Bismarck wanted to prevent a war on two fronts, which is why Italy was invited to the existing alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary. Each member promised mutual support in the event of an attack by any other great power, or, in the case of Germany and Italy, an attack by France alone.
The man chiefly responsible for the Triple Alliance was Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of Germany. Bismarck wanted to prevent a war on two fronts, which is why Italy was invited to the existing alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary. Each member promised mutual support in the event of an attack by any other great power, or, in the case of Germany and Italy, an attack by France alone.
The Franco-Russian Alliance
The initiative for an alliance came from France. French financial aid helped smooth relations and in 1891 serious negotiations began. A major difficulty was that France wanted a specific alliance directed against Germany while Russia wanted a general agreement against Britain, conscious of the emerging friendship between Germany and Britain at the time. In the end, two agreements were made: an anti-British agreement in 1891, and a military convention in 1892, whereby the two powers promised each other of support if either were attacked by Germany. Germany now faced the prospect of a two-front war.
The initiative for an alliance came from France. French financial aid helped smooth relations and in 1891 serious negotiations began. A major difficulty was that France wanted a specific alliance directed against Germany while Russia wanted a general agreement against Britain, conscious of the emerging friendship between Germany and Britain at the time. In the end, two agreements were made: an anti-British agreement in 1891, and a military convention in 1892, whereby the two powers promised each other of support if either were attacked by Germany. Germany now faced the prospect of a two-front war.
Anglo-Japanese Treaty
The Anglo-Japanese Treaty of 1902 acted as a catalyst for improving Anglo-French relations. It showed the rest of Europe that Britain was starting to abandon their policy of Splendid Isolation and that it was open to pacts and alliances. Italy and France also reached a secret agreement whereby each assured the other of neutrality if either were attacked.
The Anglo-Japanese Treaty of 1902 acted as a catalyst for improving Anglo-French relations. It showed the rest of Europe that Britain was starting to abandon their policy of Splendid Isolation and that it was open to pacts and alliances. Italy and France also reached a secret agreement whereby each assured the other of neutrality if either were attacked.
Entente Cordiale
Britain and France feared they might be drawn into the increasing tension between Russia and Japan. In 1904, Britain and France settled their colonial differences. The Entente Cordiale was not an alliance; there was no mutual enemy. It was more of a non-aggression pact. By entering a pact with France, Britain decided that Morocco was in the French sphere of influence. In return, France granted Britain supremacy in Egypt. This appeased Britain because she wanted to secure trade routes to and from India, and Egypt was one of the key ports. This had serious implications for Germany because she also coveted North African territory.
Britain and France feared they might be drawn into the increasing tension between Russia and Japan. In 1904, Britain and France settled their colonial differences. The Entente Cordiale was not an alliance; there was no mutual enemy. It was more of a non-aggression pact. By entering a pact with France, Britain decided that Morocco was in the French sphere of influence. In return, France granted Britain supremacy in Egypt. This appeased Britain because she wanted to secure trade routes to and from India, and Egypt was one of the key ports. This had serious implications for Germany because she also coveted North African territory.
First Moroccan Crisis
Because of Britain granting Morocco to France as a result of the Entente Cordiale, German ministers were prepared to provoke a crisis. William II landed in Morocco in March 1905 and declared that he wanted to keep Morocco independent. On the outside, it seemed like Germany wanted to share colonies. Their secret plot was to disrupt, or even destroy, the Entente Cordiale. They wanted to show France that Britain was not a worth ally. Germany assumed that France would be outvoted at the upcoming international conference; the other leaders would prefer Germany's view of an 'open' Morocco rather than France's possession over it. The French would be humiliated and would recognize that cooperation with Germany was better than with Britain.
German actions created panic in France. The French accepted Germany's demands for a conference that would be held in Algeciras in 1906. Contrary to German opinion, Britain backed France up all along. Only Austria continued to support Germany. France secured a strong position in Morocco, controlling the economy and the police of the country. Germany's plot ultimately failed: in the end, it strengthened British and French relations. In 1906, the British Foreign Secretary authorized military conversations to consider how Britain would aid France in the event of a war with Germany.
Because of Britain granting Morocco to France as a result of the Entente Cordiale, German ministers were prepared to provoke a crisis. William II landed in Morocco in March 1905 and declared that he wanted to keep Morocco independent. On the outside, it seemed like Germany wanted to share colonies. Their secret plot was to disrupt, or even destroy, the Entente Cordiale. They wanted to show France that Britain was not a worth ally. Germany assumed that France would be outvoted at the upcoming international conference; the other leaders would prefer Germany's view of an 'open' Morocco rather than France's possession over it. The French would be humiliated and would recognize that cooperation with Germany was better than with Britain.
German actions created panic in France. The French accepted Germany's demands for a conference that would be held in Algeciras in 1906. Contrary to German opinion, Britain backed France up all along. Only Austria continued to support Germany. France secured a strong position in Morocco, controlling the economy and the police of the country. Germany's plot ultimately failed: in the end, it strengthened British and French relations. In 1906, the British Foreign Secretary authorized military conversations to consider how Britain would aid France in the event of a war with Germany.
The Triple Entente
By 1907, Europe was divided into two major parts; Germany was far less secure than she had been two decades earlier. Germany barely had an overseas empire and their naval fleet alienated Britain; this ended any chance of an Anglo-German alliance. In 1907, Germany's only ally was Austria-Hungary. Russia was welcomed to the Entente Cordiale, forming the Triple Entente. Europe was now divided into two alliances:
By 1907, Europe was divided into two major parts; Germany was far less secure than she had been two decades earlier. Germany barely had an overseas empire and their naval fleet alienated Britain; this ended any chance of an Anglo-German alliance. In 1907, Germany's only ally was Austria-Hungary. Russia was welcomed to the Entente Cordiale, forming the Triple Entente. Europe was now divided into two alliances:
Alliance Name
|
Alliance Members
|
The Triple Entente
|
Britain
France Russia |
The Triple Alliance
|
Germany
Austria-Hungary Italy |
Second Moroccan Crisis
In 1911, a rebellion broke out in Morocco against the Sultan, Abdelhafid. By early April, the Sultan was besieged in his palace in Fez. The French prepared to send troops to help put down the rebellion, under the pretext of protecting European lives and property. French troops occupied the Moroccan capital, Fez, in May 1911. A French takeover of Morocco was expected. Germany arrived in Morocco in July and stated that they wanted to protect German trade interests. Their real purpose was to persuade France to give Germany territory in return for the German recognition of French occupation of Morocco. They tried to do so using 'gun boat diplomacy', where they threatened France using their military. In the middle of the crisis, Germany suffered a huge economic downturn and the Kaiser backed down and let the French take over most of Morocco. During negotiations, Germany demanded too much and Britain suspected that Germany was trying to blackmail France. The Treaty of Fez finally decided that Germany would recognize French occupation of Morocco in return for territory in Africa. Rather than scaring Britain into turning toward Germany, the crisis increased fear and hostility drew Britain closer to France. British backing of France during the crisis reinforced the Entente between the two countries (and with Russia as well), and increasing Anglo-German estrangement.
In 1911, a rebellion broke out in Morocco against the Sultan, Abdelhafid. By early April, the Sultan was besieged in his palace in Fez. The French prepared to send troops to help put down the rebellion, under the pretext of protecting European lives and property. French troops occupied the Moroccan capital, Fez, in May 1911. A French takeover of Morocco was expected. Germany arrived in Morocco in July and stated that they wanted to protect German trade interests. Their real purpose was to persuade France to give Germany territory in return for the German recognition of French occupation of Morocco. They tried to do so using 'gun boat diplomacy', where they threatened France using their military. In the middle of the crisis, Germany suffered a huge economic downturn and the Kaiser backed down and let the French take over most of Morocco. During negotiations, Germany demanded too much and Britain suspected that Germany was trying to blackmail France. The Treaty of Fez finally decided that Germany would recognize French occupation of Morocco in return for territory in Africa. Rather than scaring Britain into turning toward Germany, the crisis increased fear and hostility drew Britain closer to France. British backing of France during the crisis reinforced the Entente between the two countries (and with Russia as well), and increasing Anglo-German estrangement.
Great Power Rivalries
France vs. Germany
The French wanted revenge after their defeat in 1871 by which the newly created German Empire seized the French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. Many in France were determined to regain this land. Bismarck's solution was to isolate France.
The French wanted revenge after their defeat in 1871 by which the newly created German Empire seized the French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. Many in France were determined to regain this land. Bismarck's solution was to isolate France.
Britain vs. Germany
This rivalry emerged mainly because of the policies of the German Kaiser, Wilhelm II. He was determined to build up the German Empire. This led to competition with the British who already had an empire covering nearly one quarter of the world. Germany industry was quickly becoming more efficient and the highest producer of goods. Britain felt threatened by the growth of German industry. The race between Germany and Britain to build up their navies intensified when the Dreadnought was launched in 1906.
This rivalry emerged mainly because of the policies of the German Kaiser, Wilhelm II. He was determined to build up the German Empire. This led to competition with the British who already had an empire covering nearly one quarter of the world. Germany industry was quickly becoming more efficient and the highest producer of goods. Britain felt threatened by the growth of German industry. The race between Germany and Britain to build up their navies intensified when the Dreadnought was launched in 1906.
Austria-Hungary vs. Serbia
Austria-Hungary was a large empire of many different nationalities including many Serbs. Serbia was located south of the Austro-Hungarian empire and wanted to create an enlarged Serbian state which would include the Serbs of Austria as well as Bosnia and Herzegovina. Austria felt increasingly threatened by Serbia.
Austria-Hungary was a large empire of many different nationalities including many Serbs. Serbia was located south of the Austro-Hungarian empire and wanted to create an enlarged Serbian state which would include the Serbs of Austria as well as Bosnia and Herzegovina. Austria felt increasingly threatened by Serbia.
Austria-Hungary vs. Russia
Russia was the protector of the Slav peoples of southeast Europe. These included the Serbs and Russia supported Serbia's ambitions for a larger Serbia. This in turn turned the Austrians against the Russians.
Russia was the protector of the Slav peoples of southeast Europe. These included the Serbs and Russia supported Serbia's ambitions for a larger Serbia. This in turn turned the Austrians against the Russians.
Germany's Impact
Bismarck's legacy
Bismarck's main objective was the security of the German empire. He had no wish for another war with the French, out of their desire to recover Alsace-Lorraine, and he sought to guarantee peace in Europe. Danger would only arise for Germany if France were to ally with Russia or Austria-Hungary. Bismarck feared that an Austro-Russian war over the Balkans would give France the opportunity to ally with either of them. Bismarck worked to maintain good relations with both Austria and Russia for this reason. The Dual Alliance was signed between Germany and Austria in 1879 and both countries promised each other their full support if either was attacked by Russia. Italy joined this alliance three years later to form the Triple Alliance. At this point, Bismarck feared that Russia might ally with France and signed the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia in 1887 in order to maintain a good relationship with her. By allying with Russia, Germany, had an ally, but more importantly, it deprived France of a potential ally, decreasing chances of Germany facing a two front war. However, William II questioned the need for the Russian alliance.
Opinions about Bismarck's legacy remain divided. Some say that his elaborate system of alliances appeared to be fragile and France was still bitter even though Bismarck successfully isolated her. Bismarck's actions in Africa worsened long-term relations with Britain. However, others point out that he succeeded in cooperating with not only Austria-Hungary, but also Russia and remained on good terms with Britain. Russia was eager to renew the Reinsurance Treaty in 1890 and under Bismarck, Germany prospered and Europe was blessed with 20 years of peace.
Bismarck's main objective was the security of the German empire. He had no wish for another war with the French, out of their desire to recover Alsace-Lorraine, and he sought to guarantee peace in Europe. Danger would only arise for Germany if France were to ally with Russia or Austria-Hungary. Bismarck feared that an Austro-Russian war over the Balkans would give France the opportunity to ally with either of them. Bismarck worked to maintain good relations with both Austria and Russia for this reason. The Dual Alliance was signed between Germany and Austria in 1879 and both countries promised each other their full support if either was attacked by Russia. Italy joined this alliance three years later to form the Triple Alliance. At this point, Bismarck feared that Russia might ally with France and signed the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia in 1887 in order to maintain a good relationship with her. By allying with Russia, Germany, had an ally, but more importantly, it deprived France of a potential ally, decreasing chances of Germany facing a two front war. However, William II questioned the need for the Russian alliance.
Opinions about Bismarck's legacy remain divided. Some say that his elaborate system of alliances appeared to be fragile and France was still bitter even though Bismarck successfully isolated her. Bismarck's actions in Africa worsened long-term relations with Britain. However, others point out that he succeeded in cooperating with not only Austria-Hungary, but also Russia and remained on good terms with Britain. Russia was eager to renew the Reinsurance Treaty in 1890 and under Bismarck, Germany prospered and Europe was blessed with 20 years of peace.
Germany's 'new course'
Bismarck's successor Caprivi pursued a new course which attempted to simplify German policy by eliminating the complex commitments made by Bismarck. Caprivi rejected Russia's proposal to renew the Reinsurance Treaty under the grounds that Germany would prefer to maintain relations with Austria-Hungary. German acceptance of the Reinsurance Treaty would also have angered Britain, whom Germany hoped to persuade to join the Triple Alliance. In 1890, Germany and Britain reached an agreement by which Germany gained Heligoland in return for giving up rights in Zanzibar and East Africa. Russia and France feared an Anglo-German alliance, and their mutual fears gradually drew them closer together.
Bismarck's successor Caprivi pursued a new course which attempted to simplify German policy by eliminating the complex commitments made by Bismarck. Caprivi rejected Russia's proposal to renew the Reinsurance Treaty under the grounds that Germany would prefer to maintain relations with Austria-Hungary. German acceptance of the Reinsurance Treaty would also have angered Britain, whom Germany hoped to persuade to join the Triple Alliance. In 1890, Germany and Britain reached an agreement by which Germany gained Heligoland in return for giving up rights in Zanzibar and East Africa. Russia and France feared an Anglo-German alliance, and their mutual fears gradually drew them closer together.
Anglo-German Relations
The German government did not regard the Franco-Russian alliance as a threat. It hoped that the alliance might force Britain to join the Triple Alliance. Britain, generally anti-French and anti-Russian, felt somewhat isolated: she wanted a German friendship, not a full-blown alliance. If you ever get friendzoned, just think about how Germany felt. Having failed to secure an alliance, Germany resorted to pressure and threats. By 1896, Anglo-German relations had deteriorated badly.
The German government did not regard the Franco-Russian alliance as a threat. It hoped that the alliance might force Britain to join the Triple Alliance. Britain, generally anti-French and anti-Russian, felt somewhat isolated: she wanted a German friendship, not a full-blown alliance. If you ever get friendzoned, just think about how Germany felt. Having failed to secure an alliance, Germany resorted to pressure and threats. By 1896, Anglo-German relations had deteriorated badly.
Weltpolitik
In 1896, Wilhelm II proclaimed that 'nothing must henceforth be settled in the world without the intervention of Germany and the German emperor". This is seen as the start of Germany's 'new world policy' and the rejection of Bismarck's 'continental policy'. The emphasis was now on overseas expansion. Wilhelm II desperately wanted to be a world power like Britain and many of his people agreed with him. By the late 1890s there were three organization dedicated to the promotion of a German world power - the Pan-German league, the German Colonial League, and the Navy League. The master plan behind the Weltpolitik consisted of four main elements:
However, Kaiser Wilhelm was a very complex character whose moods were liable to change very rapidly. This led to the aims of the foreign policy being vague and having a lack of coherence.
In 1896, Wilhelm II proclaimed that 'nothing must henceforth be settled in the world without the intervention of Germany and the German emperor". This is seen as the start of Germany's 'new world policy' and the rejection of Bismarck's 'continental policy'. The emphasis was now on overseas expansion. Wilhelm II desperately wanted to be a world power like Britain and many of his people agreed with him. By the late 1890s there were three organization dedicated to the promotion of a German world power - the Pan-German league, the German Colonial League, and the Navy League. The master plan behind the Weltpolitik consisted of four main elements:
- To create a massive navy that would demonstrate Germany's status as a world power, rallying popular support behind the Kaiser
- To create a great Central African empire
- To create a German-dominated Central Europe economic zone, comprising of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Balkan states, and the Ottoman Empire
- To create a railway from Berlin to Baghdad that would tie the economic zone together
However, Kaiser Wilhelm was a very complex character whose moods were liable to change very rapidly. This led to the aims of the foreign policy being vague and having a lack of coherence.
The Arms Race
British Policy
German imperial ambitions, and the creation of a big German navy, were bound to be seen as challenges by Britain. For Germany, a fleet was a luxury: for Britain it was essential. Determined to maintain its naval supremacy, Britain commenced a major shipbuilding program. The German naval threat inevitably increased suspicion and worsened Anglo-German relations. British and German public opinion, influenced by - or influencing - the popular press, echoed government feeling. In Germany, Anglophobia probably reached its height in the Boer war, when British troops in South Africa crushed the Boers and most Europeans sympathized with the Boer underdogs, and there was talk of a league against Britain. An Anglo-German alliance was proposed and rejected. Britain would not join the Triple Alliance, and Germany would not join an anti-Russian alliance. By 1902, the British public had become increasingly anti-German. Disappointed with Germany, Britain turned to Japan to help check Russian ambitions in China.
German imperial ambitions, and the creation of a big German navy, were bound to be seen as challenges by Britain. For Germany, a fleet was a luxury: for Britain it was essential. Determined to maintain its naval supremacy, Britain commenced a major shipbuilding program. The German naval threat inevitably increased suspicion and worsened Anglo-German relations. British and German public opinion, influenced by - or influencing - the popular press, echoed government feeling. In Germany, Anglophobia probably reached its height in the Boer war, when British troops in South Africa crushed the Boers and most Europeans sympathized with the Boer underdogs, and there was talk of a league against Britain. An Anglo-German alliance was proposed and rejected. Britain would not join the Triple Alliance, and Germany would not join an anti-Russian alliance. By 1902, the British public had become increasingly anti-German. Disappointed with Germany, Britain turned to Japan to help check Russian ambitions in China.
The Royal Navy
By 1914, the British Royal Navy was held at the highest regard amongst the overall British military force. Their land army was small, but all of Britain's important trade routes and colonies were protected by the Royal Navy. In the early 1900s, Britain came to the realization that Germany was trying to build a fleet to match the Royal Navy. The Kaiser denied this, but Germany really did want more colonies and a greater reputation; that is to say, they wanted a "place in the sun". Britain wanted to maintain a two-power standard - they wanted to have a navy that was as large as the next two greatest naval powers combined. Until 1904, these two powers were France and Russia, but with the growing threat of another great naval power, Britain decided to replace Russia with Germany. The arms race had begun.
By 1914, the British Royal Navy was held at the highest regard amongst the overall British military force. Their land army was small, but all of Britain's important trade routes and colonies were protected by the Royal Navy. In the early 1900s, Britain came to the realization that Germany was trying to build a fleet to match the Royal Navy. The Kaiser denied this, but Germany really did want more colonies and a greater reputation; that is to say, they wanted a "place in the sun". Britain wanted to maintain a two-power standard - they wanted to have a navy that was as large as the next two greatest naval powers combined. Until 1904, these two powers were France and Russia, but with the growing threat of another great naval power, Britain decided to replace Russia with Germany. The arms race had begun.
The Naval Race
Germany built up its military power/increased the size of its army in order to match that of Britain's. The German army was well equipped as its modern steel works produced huge quantities of guns, shells and bullets. The Liberal Government in Britain implemented R.B. Haldane’s reforms which created the British Expeditionary Force. The Germans made a determined effort to expand their navy with Admiral Tirpitz’s Navy Law in 1897. Britain launched the super battleship ‘Dreadnought’ in 1906 which made all previous battleships obsolete. Germany produced its own version in 1907 and there was intense rivalry to see who could produce the most. The naval race reached its peak in 1909.
Germany built up its military power/increased the size of its army in order to match that of Britain's. The German army was well equipped as its modern steel works produced huge quantities of guns, shells and bullets. The Liberal Government in Britain implemented R.B. Haldane’s reforms which created the British Expeditionary Force. The Germans made a determined effort to expand their navy with Admiral Tirpitz’s Navy Law in 1897. Britain launched the super battleship ‘Dreadnought’ in 1906 which made all previous battleships obsolete. Germany produced its own version in 1907 and there was intense rivalry to see who could produce the most. The naval race reached its peak in 1909.
Conclusions of the Naval Race
By 1914, Britain had effectively won the naval race based on the number and size of the ships, but Germany had focused on more important areas. Germany's highly effective naval gunnery meant that her ships would be more effective in battle. Britain's guns had a longer range, but German ships had better armor as well as the sailors having better training. In addition, Britain's navy had to be spread out all over the world; German ships had much less area to defend. Ultimately, there was only one major naval battle in World War I: the battle of Jutland in 1916, where British and German ships clashed with no decisive victor.
By 1914, Britain had effectively won the naval race based on the number and size of the ships, but Germany had focused on more important areas. Germany's highly effective naval gunnery meant that her ships would be more effective in battle. Britain's guns had a longer range, but German ships had better armor as well as the sailors having better training. In addition, Britain's navy had to be spread out all over the world; German ships had much less area to defend. Ultimately, there was only one major naval battle in World War I: the battle of Jutland in 1916, where British and German ships clashed with no decisive victor.
Militarism
Militarism was one of the main causes of the First World War. After 1871, the war atmosphere caused by the secret alliances between the Great Powers led to an arms race. The race was particularly serious after the turn of the century in the build up to World War I. There were significant rises in military expenditure:
Militarism was one of the main causes of the First World War. After 1871, the war atmosphere caused by the secret alliances between the Great Powers led to an arms race. The race was particularly serious after the turn of the century in the build up to World War I. There were significant rises in military expenditure:
1880
£130,000,000 |
1890
£154,000,000 |
1900
£268,000,000 |
1910
£289,000,000 |
1914
£398,000,000 |
Out of all the Great Powers, Germany was the most militaristic. Between the years 1910 and 1914, France increased her military expenditure by 10%, Britain by 13%, Russia by 39%, and Germany by 73%. Increased war expenditure enabled all of the powers to enlarge their militaries and improve their battleships.
Army conscription was also widespread in the years leading up to the war. Germany increased her forces to 170,000 men from 1913 to 1914. France lengthened her military service period from two years to three years. Russia lengthened hers from three to three and a half years. Britain was the only power which did not introduce conscription but she prepared her armed forces for both offense and defense. In general, all the powers increased the amount of arms, produced more modern weapons and built more strategic railways.
Army conscription was also widespread in the years leading up to the war. Germany increased her forces to 170,000 men from 1913 to 1914. France lengthened her military service period from two years to three years. Russia lengthened hers from three to three and a half years. Britain was the only power which did not introduce conscription but she prepared her armed forces for both offense and defense. In general, all the powers increased the amount of arms, produced more modern weapons and built more strategic railways.
Colonial Rivalries
The scramble for Africa
The European takeover of Africa was accomplished between 1880 and 1900. In 1880, only one tenth of Africa had been annexed by European states. By 1900, only one tenth had not fallen under European rule. By 1914, Britain dominated the width of the African continent; the French occupied vast expanses of West Africa; the Germans boasted control over modern-day Tanzania and Namibia; the Portuguese asserted full control over Angola and Mozambique. The conquest of Africa was relatively easy for the European states; they held the technological advantage. Only strategically-placed Ethiopia remained independent: Emperor Menelik II hatched an ingenious plan. He would set the Great Powers against each other in order to obtain the weaponry needed to protect his borders. Italy started to grow worried about the increasing French influence in Ethiopia and began to provide Menelik with weapons. Soon, Britain and Russia joined the struggle. Italy eventually claimed Ethiopia as an Italian state. Italian ambitions were dashed in battle when their army of 25,000 men was defeated by the Ethiopians at the battle of Adowa.
The European takeover of Africa was accomplished between 1880 and 1900. In 1880, only one tenth of Africa had been annexed by European states. By 1900, only one tenth had not fallen under European rule. By 1914, Britain dominated the width of the African continent; the French occupied vast expanses of West Africa; the Germans boasted control over modern-day Tanzania and Namibia; the Portuguese asserted full control over Angola and Mozambique. The conquest of Africa was relatively easy for the European states; they held the technological advantage. Only strategically-placed Ethiopia remained independent: Emperor Menelik II hatched an ingenious plan. He would set the Great Powers against each other in order to obtain the weaponry needed to protect his borders. Italy started to grow worried about the increasing French influence in Ethiopia and began to provide Menelik with weapons. Soon, Britain and Russia joined the struggle. Italy eventually claimed Ethiopia as an Italian state. Italian ambitions were dashed in battle when their army of 25,000 men was defeated by the Ethiopians at the battle of Adowa.
The struggle for China
Between 1895 and 1905, China became the focus of international rivalry. China seemed to offer tremendous economic potential with its enormous population. European, American and Japanese businesses became engaged in a battle for contracts for mining rights and railway construction. Russia was determined to win control over Manchuria and Korea. Japan also had ambitions in Korea. By this time, Japan had modernized and possessed a strong army and navy. Japan's victory in a war against China forced Russia to claim that she was China's protector. In return, China agreed to allow Russia to build a railway across Manchuria as well as fulfilling her other territorial ambitions. After 1905 China's territorial value ceased to matter to the Great Powers.
Between 1895 and 1905, China became the focus of international rivalry. China seemed to offer tremendous economic potential with its enormous population. European, American and Japanese businesses became engaged in a battle for contracts for mining rights and railway construction. Russia was determined to win control over Manchuria and Korea. Japan also had ambitions in Korea. By this time, Japan had modernized and possessed a strong army and navy. Japan's victory in a war against China forced Russia to claim that she was China's protector. In return, China agreed to allow Russia to build a railway across Manchuria as well as fulfilling her other territorial ambitions. After 1905 China's territorial value ceased to matter to the Great Powers.
Conclusions of the struggle for China
Between 1895 and 1905, the struggle for China occasionally seriously damaged relations between the Great Powers. However, this way, the Powers could let off steam at a safe distance without harming each other too much.
Between 1895 and 1905, the struggle for China occasionally seriously damaged relations between the Great Powers. However, this way, the Powers could let off steam at a safe distance without harming each other too much.
Developments in the Balkans
The Bosnian Crisis
Nationalism had increased in the Balkans at the beginning of the 20th century. The region was populated by a number of ethnic groups broadly referred to at the Slavs and centered in the small, independent nation-state of Serbia. Political domination of the region had traditionally been split between two rival empires, the Austro-Hungarian empire and the Ottoman empire. By the end of the 19th century, the crumbling influence and power of the Ottoman empire, coupled with Austria-Hungary's desire to retrench and expand her influence in the region, made this a very unstable part of the European political system. A growing number of radical Slavic nationalists living under the Hapsburgs were convinced that their future lay not federated in Austria-Hungary, but rather in a Great Serbia or Yugoslavia. Serbia wanted to be the dominant power of the region.
Area
Hapsburg Empire Bosnia-Herzegovina Serbia |
Number of Serbs (compared to Serbia)
2x 2x 1x |
Austria-Hungary wanted to take advantage of a revolution in Turkey to annex the Turkish province of Bosnia. The Serbs were furious because they wanted to make Bosnia part of a 'greater Slav land'. This caused tension because Russia also turned her attention to the Balkans: she wanted access to the Mediterranean via the Black Sea. Austria and Russia made a deal: Russia would support Austria's annexation of Bosnia if Austria allowed Russia access to the Black Sea. This was unofficially known as Izvolsky's deal. When Austria jumped the gun and announced her annexation of Bosnia in October 1908, Russia denied any knowledge of the deal and instructed Bosnia to support Serbia in order to oppose Austria-Hungary. Serbia appealed to Russia, who called for an international conference to discuss the matter. Austria refused to attend and was backed by Germany. Major powers were now involved in the crisis. Germany demanded that Russia accept the Austrian seizure of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Austria became increasingly confident of its position. Russia had little choice but to back down, and decided to determine its military strength to ensure that it was not put in the position of backing down again. Serbia was furious with Austria and wanted revenge and the return of Bosnia. Serbia would wait for the ideal opportunity to settle the score.
The Balkan Wars
In 1911, Italy went to war with the Ottomans (Turkey) in pursuit of her territorial ambitions, specifically Tripoli. Serbia saw this as an opportunity to profit from the Ottoman empire being distracted by Italy. In the autumn of 1912, the Balkan League was formed. It consisted of Greece, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Serbia. Within the first two weeks of October 1912, the entire Balkan League was at war with Turkey. The Turks were defeated before the turn of the year and driven out of Europe, except for Constantinople (modern Istanbul). The profit of the war was Albania and Macedonia. An armistice was signed in December 1912, but another war quickly flared up when Bulgaria attacked Serbia in May 1913 due to disputes over the administration of the two provinces. Greece, Romania and Turkey swiftly joined the Second Balkan War on Serbia's side. Bulgaria's troops were successfully defeated and she was forced to surrender most of her gains from the First Balkan War. Although she managed to keep a toehold in Europe, Turkey had lost most of her European territory. She faced a threat of attack from Greece and Bulgaria, so she looked to a more powerful nation for protection. By 1913, German advisers had considerable influence in Turkey. Bulgaria was also left weak and resentful. The Balkan Wars had been an unexpected and dangerous time for the Great Powers. They had tried to defuse the crisis by influencing the treaty that was signed in London. The main source of tension was Austria's determination to create an independent Albania to prevent Serbia from acquiring a sea port on the Adriatic. By threatening war, Austria achieved this. By 1913, Serbia had doubled its population and seemed nearer to realizing her aim of creating a Greater Serbia, as she had emerged as the most powerful country in the Balkans. This was very serious for Austria. Serbia had a strong army and was a close ally of Russia. Austria decided that Serbia would have to be dealt with.
In 1911, Italy went to war with the Ottomans (Turkey) in pursuit of her territorial ambitions, specifically Tripoli. Serbia saw this as an opportunity to profit from the Ottoman empire being distracted by Italy. In the autumn of 1912, the Balkan League was formed. It consisted of Greece, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Serbia. Within the first two weeks of October 1912, the entire Balkan League was at war with Turkey. The Turks were defeated before the turn of the year and driven out of Europe, except for Constantinople (modern Istanbul). The profit of the war was Albania and Macedonia. An armistice was signed in December 1912, but another war quickly flared up when Bulgaria attacked Serbia in May 1913 due to disputes over the administration of the two provinces. Greece, Romania and Turkey swiftly joined the Second Balkan War on Serbia's side. Bulgaria's troops were successfully defeated and she was forced to surrender most of her gains from the First Balkan War. Although she managed to keep a toehold in Europe, Turkey had lost most of her European territory. She faced a threat of attack from Greece and Bulgaria, so she looked to a more powerful nation for protection. By 1913, German advisers had considerable influence in Turkey. Bulgaria was also left weak and resentful. The Balkan Wars had been an unexpected and dangerous time for the Great Powers. They had tried to defuse the crisis by influencing the treaty that was signed in London. The main source of tension was Austria's determination to create an independent Albania to prevent Serbia from acquiring a sea port on the Adriatic. By threatening war, Austria achieved this. By 1913, Serbia had doubled its population and seemed nearer to realizing her aim of creating a Greater Serbia, as she had emerged as the most powerful country in the Balkans. This was very serious for Austria. Serbia had a strong army and was a close ally of Russia. Austria decided that Serbia would have to be dealt with.
The July Crisis
The July Crisis began with the assassination of Austro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand on 28 June, 1914. Franz Ferdinand was killed in Sarajevo, a major town in Bosnia, by a young man called Gavrilo Princip. On the day of the Archduke's visit, there were more than half a dozen terrorists scattered throughout Sarajevo hoping to take a shot at the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. These terrorists were part of a Serbian group known as the Black Hand.
The assassination shocked Europe. Austria saw this assassination as a perfect excuse to crush Serbia. Germany offered Austria-Hungary her full support in whatever course of action she took against the Serbs; this was known as the Blank Check. As a result of the blank check, Austria sent Serbia an ultimatum on 23 July, 1914. When Serbia did not respond to Austria's ultimatum, Austria declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914 by shelling Belgrade, Serbia's capital. On 29 July, the Russians got ready to help Serbia defend itself against the Austrian attack and also to defend its own frontiers. Understanding the alliance system, the Russian Tsar Nicholas II contacted his cousin Kaiser Wilhelm and encouraged him to cease all military preparation. This resulted in a series of telegram exchanges between the two, with Wilhelm ordering Germany to oppose Serbia.
On August 1st, Germany declared war on Russia. It also began to mobilize its war plan "The Schlieffen Plan", which meant that they were directing their troops towards France, through neutral Belgium. Germany seemed to be clinging to the hope that the UK would stay out of the conflict.
On August 2, France was getting ready to fight the German invasion and began its own war plan: Plan #17.
On August 3, Germany declared war on France and invaded Belgium. Britain ordered Germany to withdraw from Belgium.
On August 4, with the Germans still in Belgium, Britain honored the Treaty of London (1839) and declared war on Germany.
Finally, on August 6, Austria declared war on Russia.
The assassination shocked Europe. Austria saw this assassination as a perfect excuse to crush Serbia. Germany offered Austria-Hungary her full support in whatever course of action she took against the Serbs; this was known as the Blank Check. As a result of the blank check, Austria sent Serbia an ultimatum on 23 July, 1914. When Serbia did not respond to Austria's ultimatum, Austria declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914 by shelling Belgrade, Serbia's capital. On 29 July, the Russians got ready to help Serbia defend itself against the Austrian attack and also to defend its own frontiers. Understanding the alliance system, the Russian Tsar Nicholas II contacted his cousin Kaiser Wilhelm and encouraged him to cease all military preparation. This resulted in a series of telegram exchanges between the two, with Wilhelm ordering Germany to oppose Serbia.
On August 1st, Germany declared war on Russia. It also began to mobilize its war plan "The Schlieffen Plan", which meant that they were directing their troops towards France, through neutral Belgium. Germany seemed to be clinging to the hope that the UK would stay out of the conflict.
On August 2, France was getting ready to fight the German invasion and began its own war plan: Plan #17.
On August 3, Germany declared war on France and invaded Belgium. Britain ordered Germany to withdraw from Belgium.
On August 4, with the Germans still in Belgium, Britain honored the Treaty of London (1839) and declared war on Germany.
Finally, on August 6, Austria declared war on Russia.
War Plans
Opening moves
The opening days of the First World War have often been referred to as "war by timetable". The railroad system became vital as all major European powers had to move millions of men to position on their frontiers, so as to be able to carry out war plans of varying degrees of complexity.
The opening days of the First World War have often been referred to as "war by timetable". The railroad system became vital as all major European powers had to move millions of men to position on their frontiers, so as to be able to carry out war plans of varying degrees of complexity.
The Schlieffen Plan
Although the assassination at Sarajevo sparked off a chain of events that led to the outbreak of the First World War, the German invasion of Belgium on 4th August 1914 was due to the Schlieffen Plan. The Schlieffen Plan was a war plan designed by Alfred von Schlieffen in 1905. It entailed quickly invading France through neutral Belgium, before turning around to face Russia. It was assumed by the German military that Britain would not abide by the 1839 Treaty of London, which granted Belgium protection from Britain. Instead, Belgium offered more resistance than expected and Germany was not able to storm Paris like they expected; they were stuck in Belgium. In the mean time, Russia was mobilizing and Britain remained loyal to Belgium.The plan came close to success, but ultimately failed for three main reasons:
The German invasion of Britain on 4th August 1914 brought Britain into the war. The British had no intention of supporting Russia and it would have been difficult for the British Government to convince the British public to go to war simply due to close relations with France.
Although the assassination at Sarajevo sparked off a chain of events that led to the outbreak of the First World War, the German invasion of Belgium on 4th August 1914 was due to the Schlieffen Plan. The Schlieffen Plan was a war plan designed by Alfred von Schlieffen in 1905. It entailed quickly invading France through neutral Belgium, before turning around to face Russia. It was assumed by the German military that Britain would not abide by the 1839 Treaty of London, which granted Belgium protection from Britain. Instead, Belgium offered more resistance than expected and Germany was not able to storm Paris like they expected; they were stuck in Belgium. In the mean time, Russia was mobilizing and Britain remained loyal to Belgium.The plan came close to success, but ultimately failed for three main reasons:
- Schlieffen's successor as German Chief of Staff, von Moltke, had made some significant changes to the original plan. These included avoiding an invasion of Dutch territory in order to keep the Netherlands neutral. This meant that the German armies had to fit through a narrow gap near Liege, the defense of which by the Belgians held up the German advance for three days. Holding back more troops in the central zone and left wing of the front in case of a French counter-attack. This went against Schlieffen's original intention of making these areas deliberately weaker in order to strengthen the right wing, which would form the 'hammer head' of the invasion.
- The Russian mobilized more quickly than expected, so von Moltke transferred two divisions to the Russian front, weakening the attack of France at a crucial stage
- Britain came into the war because of Germany's invasion of Belgium because it violated the Treaty of London
The German invasion of Britain on 4th August 1914 brought Britain into the war. The British had no intention of supporting Russia and it would have been difficult for the British Government to convince the British public to go to war simply due to close relations with France.
Plan XVII
The French war plan (Plan #17) called for a massing of French armies on the eastern front, away from the main thrust of the Germany army. The idea was that the troops would rush gallantly eastwards, regaining the honor of the French army and the territories of Alsace and Lorraine. Plan #17 rested on the ideas of attack and the offensive spirit, which would be aided by the Russia mobilization and the coordinated assistance of the British army.
The French war plan (Plan #17) called for a massing of French armies on the eastern front, away from the main thrust of the Germany army. The idea was that the troops would rush gallantly eastwards, regaining the honor of the French army and the territories of Alsace and Lorraine. Plan #17 rested on the ideas of attack and the offensive spirit, which would be aided by the Russia mobilization and the coordinated assistance of the British army.
Assigning the Blame
German responsibility
The Treaty of Versailles that was decided at the end of the war fully blamed Germany and her allies for starting the war. Most historians argued that no single power was responsible for the war. However, it is still possible to hold Germany responsible:
The Treaty of Versailles that was decided at the end of the war fully blamed Germany and her allies for starting the war. Most historians argued that no single power was responsible for the war. However, it is still possible to hold Germany responsible:
- Germany's aggressive pursuit of weltpolitik soured international relations and acted as a catalyst for the creation of the Triple Entente
- German intervention in the two Moroccan crises created tension
- Germany offered Austria-Hungary her full support in whatever action she took against the Serbs
- German military leaders felt threatened and encircled and desired the idea of a preventive war
- Germany rejected Britain's proposal for a conference in July 1914
- German mobilization meant war as a result of the Schlieffen Plan
- Germany ensured that Britain would enter the war by invading Belgium
Austrian responsibility
- The Habsburg government exaggerated the Serbian threat
- It was Austria-Hungary who urged war against Serbia on several occasions
- Austria sought to use the Sarajevo assassination as an excuse to crush Serbia
- The delay between the assassination and the ultimatum intensified the crisis
- Austria was the first power to resort to force by attacking Serbia
Russian responsibility
- Russia was unable to suppress Serbian nationalism
- Russia promised support to Serbia and this led to Serbia rejecting Austria's ultimatum
- Russia was the first power to begin mobilization and her unwillingness to stop led Germany to mobilize
French responsibility
France cannot be blamed for starting World War I. Her agitation to win back Alsace-Lorraine had subsided by 1890 and France showed no desire for a war of revenge. France did offer Russia her support in 1914, but she did not encourage Russia to fight. In the end Germany declared war on France, not the reverse.
France cannot be blamed for starting World War I. Her agitation to win back Alsace-Lorraine had subsided by 1890 and France showed no desire for a war of revenge. France did offer Russia her support in 1914, but she did not encourage Russia to fight. In the end Germany declared war on France, not the reverse.
British responsibility
The British prime minister played a minor role in the events leading up to World War I. Some suggest that he could have made it clear to Germany that France would be backed by Britain in the event of war. However, German leaders expected - and were not too concerned about - British intervention. The British Expeditionary Force was only half the size of the Belgian army and it seemed unlikely that British intervention would disrupt the Schlieffen Plan.
The British prime minister played a minor role in the events leading up to World War I. Some suggest that he could have made it clear to Germany that France would be backed by Britain in the event of war. However, German leaders expected - and were not too concerned about - British intervention. The British Expeditionary Force was only half the size of the Belgian army and it seemed unlikely that British intervention would disrupt the Schlieffen Plan.
Serbian responsibility
- Serbia's aggressive nationalism unsettled the Balkans
- Serbia's government could have accepted the Austrian ultimatum
Mongolian responsibility
Timeline of Major Developments (1900-1914)
- 1879 - Dual Alliance formed
- 1882 - Triple Alliance formed
- 1892 - Franco-Russian Alliance formed
- 1900 - Only one tenth of Africa had not fallen under European rule
- 1902 - Britain abandons her policy of Splendid Isolation by reaching an understanding with Japan
- 1904 - The Entente Cordiale is formed between Britain and France
- 1905 - The First Moroccan Crisis takes place
- 1906 - The Conference of Algeciras takes place, start of Anglo-German naval rivalry
- 1907 - Russia is welcomed into the Entente Cordiale, forming the Triple Entente
- 1908 - Austria announces her annexation of Bosnia
- 1909 - The Naval Race between Britain and Germany reaches its peak
- 1910 - All the Great Powers start to dramatically increase their military expenditure
- 1911 - The Second Moroccan Crisis takes place
- 1912 - The Balkan League forms and goes to war against Turkey
- 1913 - A second Balkan war flares up
- 28 June 1914 - Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
- 06 July 1914 - Germany provides Austria-Hungary with a Blank Cheque
- 23 July 1914 - Austria-Hungary issues Serbia with an ultimatum
- 25 July 1914 - Serbia rejects the key demand of Austria-Hungary's ultimatum
- 25 July 1914 - Russia decides to support Serbia
- 27 July 1914 - Sir Edward Grey appeals to Germany to resolve the crisis
- 28 July 1914 - Germany attempts to restrain Austria
- 28 July 1914 - Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia
- 28 July 1914 - Russia orders partial mobilization to deter Austria
- 29 July 1914 - Nicholas II of Russia sends a telegram to Kaiser Wilhelm I encouraging him to avoid war
- 30 July 1914 - Russia mobilizes fully, with French support
- 01 August 1914 - Germany declares war on Russia
- 02 August 1914 - German government demands a passage through neutral Belgium, who rejects. German troops invade
- 03 August 1914 - Germany declares war on France
- 04 August 1914 - Britain declares war on Germany
- 06 August 1914 - Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia
- 12 August 1914 - Britain and France declare war on Austria-Hungary