Section 1: Were the Revolutions of 1848 important?
Focus Points
- Why were there so many revolutions in 1848?
- Did the revolutions have anything in common?
- Why did most of the revolutions fail?
- Did the revolutions change anything?
Main People
France
Louis-Philippe: King of France before the revolution
Francois Guizot: Prime Minister of Louis-Philippe's government
Louis Theirs: Leader of French liberal movement
Louis Blanc: Leader of French socialist movement
Alphonse Lamartine: Leader of provisional government after revolution
Louis Napoleon: Emperor of France after the revolution
Italy
Charles Albert: King of Piedmont Sardinia
Victor Emanuelle: King of Piedmont Sardinia after abdication of Charles Albert
Giuseppe Mazzini: Leader of the Rome revolt
Giuseppe Garibaldi: Italian patriot and military leader
Pope Pius IX: Pope at time of 1848 revolutions
Ferdinand II: King of Sicily
Germany
King Frederick William IV: King of Prussia
Frankfurt Parliament: Liberal assembly after revolution
Treaty of Olmutz: Restoration of German Confederation
Hapsburgs: Austrian royal family
Austria-Hungary
Emperor Ferdinand I: Emperor of the Austrian Empire
Metternich: Conservative minister of the Empire
Lajos Kossuth: leader of Hungarian revolt
Francis Joseph I: Emperor after abdication of Ferdinand I
Nicholas I: Tsar of Russia
France
Louis-Philippe: King of France before the revolution
Francois Guizot: Prime Minister of Louis-Philippe's government
Louis Theirs: Leader of French liberal movement
Louis Blanc: Leader of French socialist movement
Alphonse Lamartine: Leader of provisional government after revolution
Louis Napoleon: Emperor of France after the revolution
Italy
Charles Albert: King of Piedmont Sardinia
Victor Emanuelle: King of Piedmont Sardinia after abdication of Charles Albert
Giuseppe Mazzini: Leader of the Rome revolt
Giuseppe Garibaldi: Italian patriot and military leader
Pope Pius IX: Pope at time of 1848 revolutions
Ferdinand II: King of Sicily
Germany
King Frederick William IV: King of Prussia
Frankfurt Parliament: Liberal assembly after revolution
Treaty of Olmutz: Restoration of German Confederation
Hapsburgs: Austrian royal family
Austria-Hungary
Emperor Ferdinand I: Emperor of the Austrian Empire
Metternich: Conservative minister of the Empire
Lajos Kossuth: leader of Hungarian revolt
Francis Joseph I: Emperor after abdication of Ferdinand I
Nicholas I: Tsar of Russia
Causes of the 1848 Revolutions
Examine the economic, social and political causes of 1848 Revolutions:
(a) Economic and Social:
(b) Political:
Examine the economic, social and political causes of 1848 Revolutions:
(a) Economic and Social:
- Industrialization
- Overpopulation
- Urbanization
- Food Crisis
(b) Political:
- Examine the ideas and aims of the Congress of Vienna in 1815
- How Europe was ruled under authority rule
- The spread of ideas of liberalism, nationalism, socialism and communism
Economic and Social Causes
Industrialization
An industrial revolution was taking place in Europe in the 19th century. The use of machinery was introduced and factories and industrial towns were growing in order to accommodate the new technology. For example, by 1840, British production had tripled since 1800. In Belgium, it had doubled. France's industrial output had increased by 77% in this time. Although large-scale factories were not commonplace, industrial towns experienced rapid growth, although the overpopulated conditions meant that housing was in short supply, producing terrible overcrowding. The average life expectancy of a worker was very low and the inadequate sanitation led to diseases such as tuberculosis, typhoid and cholera
Overpopulation
An explosive increase in population occurred in Europe between 1815 and 1820. This was due to the improvements in food production and the industrial revolution that had taken place in the early 1800s. The urbanization that took place also increased the population in urban areas, which led to almost all of the 1848 Revolutions being urban.
Urbanization
Because of the shortage of land in the countryside, many peasants migrated to the towns in search of work. However, there were insufficient jobs and housing to accommodate the rising population. The large increase in population and poor sanitation led to an incline in diseases such as cholera. The unemployed newcomers started to depend on charity or turned to crime as a source of income. This led to most of the 1848 Revolutions being urban rather than rural.
The Food Crisis
In the years 1845 - 1846, there was an agricultural crisis all over Europe: there were failures of cereal and potato harvests. This meant a shortage of these foods amongst the poorer populations of Europe. The shortages led to 'panic buying' of these goods as communication was poor between the general population and the government, who did nothing to help. Overall, the food crisis made the standard of living much worse amongst many across Europe. The shortage of food saw prices rise dramatically. As a result of this, people across Europe started to a greater proportion of their money on food.
The shortages in turn, affected the industrial production badly. Production suffered a steep fall and because there was less money going towards industrial production, a financial crisis ensued. This was made worse by the fact that European populations had decided not to purchase manufactured goods in the face of the food shortages.
Industrialization
An industrial revolution was taking place in Europe in the 19th century. The use of machinery was introduced and factories and industrial towns were growing in order to accommodate the new technology. For example, by 1840, British production had tripled since 1800. In Belgium, it had doubled. France's industrial output had increased by 77% in this time. Although large-scale factories were not commonplace, industrial towns experienced rapid growth, although the overpopulated conditions meant that housing was in short supply, producing terrible overcrowding. The average life expectancy of a worker was very low and the inadequate sanitation led to diseases such as tuberculosis, typhoid and cholera
Overpopulation
An explosive increase in population occurred in Europe between 1815 and 1820. This was due to the improvements in food production and the industrial revolution that had taken place in the early 1800s. The urbanization that took place also increased the population in urban areas, which led to almost all of the 1848 Revolutions being urban.
Urbanization
Because of the shortage of land in the countryside, many peasants migrated to the towns in search of work. However, there were insufficient jobs and housing to accommodate the rising population. The large increase in population and poor sanitation led to an incline in diseases such as cholera. The unemployed newcomers started to depend on charity or turned to crime as a source of income. This led to most of the 1848 Revolutions being urban rather than rural.
The Food Crisis
In the years 1845 - 1846, there was an agricultural crisis all over Europe: there were failures of cereal and potato harvests. This meant a shortage of these foods amongst the poorer populations of Europe. The shortages led to 'panic buying' of these goods as communication was poor between the general population and the government, who did nothing to help. Overall, the food crisis made the standard of living much worse amongst many across Europe. The shortage of food saw prices rise dramatically. As a result of this, people across Europe started to a greater proportion of their money on food.
The shortages in turn, affected the industrial production badly. Production suffered a steep fall and because there was less money going towards industrial production, a financial crisis ensued. This was made worse by the fact that European populations had decided not to purchase manufactured goods in the face of the food shortages.
Political Causes
Examine the ideas and aims of the Congress of Vienna in 1815
The Congress of Vienna was created to decide the fate of post-Napoleonic Europe. Four common goals were agreed upon by the Great Powers of the time:
Most of the 'Big Five' triumphed at the Congress of Vienna in some way:
How Europe was ruled under authority rule
The decisions made at Vienna in 1815 decided more than new borders; one of the main aims was to reinstate conservative regimes. This meant that there was a commitment to the power of monarchy and the Church, and the recognition of aristocracy. These ideas predated the French Revolution and were challenged by different groups over the years.
The spread of ideas of liberalism, nationalism, socialism and communism
The liberals of the 19th century believed that the Parliament should have power in the nation; the royal family would no longer have power and neither would the church. They opposed the decisions made at Vienna because the leaders wanted to reinstate the conservative regimes whereas the liberals were open to new ideas and were willing to discard traditional values. Liberalism also provided freedom of press, freedom of speech, and individual freedom. Liberalism attracted the Nouveau Riche and the emerging middle class (lawyers, doctors, teachers). Because of the freedom provided by liberalism, manufacturers, industrialists and merchants were also attracted to the liberals' ideas. Britain and Belgium did very well with liberalism; they introduced universal suffrage. Italy, on the other hand, retained the ideology that in order to vote, you have to "have income, intelligence and a penis".
The idea of nationalism was also spreading throughout Europe. Nationalists believed that if people have something in common, for example a common language, history, or heritage, they should be brought together to form an independent state. Nationalism appealed to literate, educated people such as professionals and middle classes. Nationalism also appealed to the Italian Risorgimento movement which eventually unified Italy. Nationalism is very diverse and can be combined with other ideologies such as liberalism.
Socialism was an ideology that believed that the way the world works needs to be reorganized so that society becomes fairer. Unlike some other ideologies, social change was peaceful and tried to decide how society is run, as well as pressing for economic change in order to decide how politics are run. But they faced a dilemma: how would they achieve social reform. Socialism mostly appealed to educated artisans who were out of the picture once the industrial revolution took place.
Communism was also one of the factors that agitated the middle class; they were angry with the aristocracy and their leaders and wanted the right to vote, especially in France.
Examine the ideas and aims of the Congress of Vienna in 1815
The Congress of Vienna was created to decide the fate of post-Napoleonic Europe. Four common goals were agreed upon by the Great Powers of the time:
- Create a balance of power
- Reinstate conservative regimes
- Contain France
- Cooperate to prevent war; for the good of Europe
Most of the 'Big Five' triumphed at the Congress of Vienna in some way:
- Russia gained Polish, Finnish and Bessarabian territory
- Prussia got their territory back
- Austria gained a strong position against Italy
- Britain gained colonies in strategic positions such as Malta, Lonian Islands, Tobago, St. Lucia, Mauritius, Sri Lanka and South Africa
How Europe was ruled under authority rule
The decisions made at Vienna in 1815 decided more than new borders; one of the main aims was to reinstate conservative regimes. This meant that there was a commitment to the power of monarchy and the Church, and the recognition of aristocracy. These ideas predated the French Revolution and were challenged by different groups over the years.
The spread of ideas of liberalism, nationalism, socialism and communism
The liberals of the 19th century believed that the Parliament should have power in the nation; the royal family would no longer have power and neither would the church. They opposed the decisions made at Vienna because the leaders wanted to reinstate the conservative regimes whereas the liberals were open to new ideas and were willing to discard traditional values. Liberalism also provided freedom of press, freedom of speech, and individual freedom. Liberalism attracted the Nouveau Riche and the emerging middle class (lawyers, doctors, teachers). Because of the freedom provided by liberalism, manufacturers, industrialists and merchants were also attracted to the liberals' ideas. Britain and Belgium did very well with liberalism; they introduced universal suffrage. Italy, on the other hand, retained the ideology that in order to vote, you have to "have income, intelligence and a penis".
The idea of nationalism was also spreading throughout Europe. Nationalists believed that if people have something in common, for example a common language, history, or heritage, they should be brought together to form an independent state. Nationalism appealed to literate, educated people such as professionals and middle classes. Nationalism also appealed to the Italian Risorgimento movement which eventually unified Italy. Nationalism is very diverse and can be combined with other ideologies such as liberalism.
Socialism was an ideology that believed that the way the world works needs to be reorganized so that society becomes fairer. Unlike some other ideologies, social change was peaceful and tried to decide how society is run, as well as pressing for economic change in order to decide how politics are run. But they faced a dilemma: how would they achieve social reform. Socialism mostly appealed to educated artisans who were out of the picture once the industrial revolution took place.
Communism was also one of the factors that agitated the middle class; they were angry with the aristocracy and their leaders and wanted the right to vote, especially in France.
France
Causes of the February Revolution
France was the first country in which revolution broke out. Metternich, an Austrian statesman, came up with the famous expression, "When France sneezes Europe catches a cold".
There were several causes underlying the French revolution, many of which were short-term in the weeks and months leading up to the revolution:
The Monarchy
King Louis-Philippe was the King of France before the revolution took place. Louis-Philippe was becoming increasing unpopular because of some of his policies. The middle class had been emerging in Europe for some time, and it consisted mainly of educated people and professionals such as teachers and lawyers. The middle class had wanted the right to vote for a long time, but the King and his premier, Guizot, opposed electoral change. This led to resentment and distrust towards the monarchy.
Reform Banquets
Protests had been forbidden in France since 1835, therefore large reform banquets were organized where people could express their anger and views of the political climate in the after-dinner speeches. On the 22nd of February, a banquet planned by a huge socialist party was banned by the government. The attendees were outraged and took to the streets. Minor skirmishes with police began to erupt. Workers, who never could have afforded tickets to the banquets, began to set up barricades. The revolution had begun.
France was the first country in which revolution broke out. Metternich, an Austrian statesman, came up with the famous expression, "When France sneezes Europe catches a cold".
There were several causes underlying the French revolution, many of which were short-term in the weeks and months leading up to the revolution:
The Monarchy
King Louis-Philippe was the King of France before the revolution took place. Louis-Philippe was becoming increasing unpopular because of some of his policies. The middle class had been emerging in Europe for some time, and it consisted mainly of educated people and professionals such as teachers and lawyers. The middle class had wanted the right to vote for a long time, but the King and his premier, Guizot, opposed electoral change. This led to resentment and distrust towards the monarchy.
Reform Banquets
Protests had been forbidden in France since 1835, therefore large reform banquets were organized where people could express their anger and views of the political climate in the after-dinner speeches. On the 22nd of February, a banquet planned by a huge socialist party was banned by the government. The attendees were outraged and took to the streets. Minor skirmishes with police began to erupt. Workers, who never could have afforded tickets to the banquets, began to set up barricades. The revolution had begun.
Events of the February Revolution
On the 22nd of February, a reform banquet was banned by the government (see Causes of the February Revolution). Outraged socialists and workers took to the streets in anger, setting up barricades and resisting the police. The next day, the police managed to disperse the crowds several times, but as the day went on, the crowds began to push back. By the end of the day, the revolt had grown too big for the King to ignore: the National Guard refused to shoot the protestors and refused to cheer for their King. Louis-Philippe now had two choices: appeasement or bloodshed. He chose appeasement by firing his premier, Guizot, in favor of a more liberal minister, Molé. This gesture of appeasement was too little, too late; around 40 protestors were advancing on the Foreign Ministry were fired upon by nervous troops. Riots broke out and King Louis-Philippe was forced to abdicate. He fled to England and left the throne to the Count of Paris, his ten-year-old grandson. However, Lamartine almost immediately proclaimed the Second Republic on 26 February.
On the 22nd of February, a reform banquet was banned by the government (see Causes of the February Revolution). Outraged socialists and workers took to the streets in anger, setting up barricades and resisting the police. The next day, the police managed to disperse the crowds several times, but as the day went on, the crowds began to push back. By the end of the day, the revolt had grown too big for the King to ignore: the National Guard refused to shoot the protestors and refused to cheer for their King. Louis-Philippe now had two choices: appeasement or bloodshed. He chose appeasement by firing his premier, Guizot, in favor of a more liberal minister, Molé. This gesture of appeasement was too little, too late; around 40 protestors were advancing on the Foreign Ministry were fired upon by nervous troops. Riots broke out and King Louis-Philippe was forced to abdicate. He fled to England and left the throne to the Count of Paris, his ten-year-old grandson. However, Lamartine almost immediately proclaimed the Second Republic on 26 February.
Consequences of the February Revolution
With the revolutionaries in control of Paris and the King in flight, the Chamber of Deputies selected a provisional government of moderate republicans (a state where the majority of power is held by the people) for the newly born Second French Republic. At the same time, the radical republicans chose their own government. After negotiations, these two governments reached a compromise where three members of the radical faction would be added to the moderate government, including Louis Blanc, who believed that workers had a basic right to work and a decent living; it was he who came up with the idea of national workshops.
Over the next four months, division between the moderates and the radicals in the government deepened. The moderates were supported by the majority of the French people and were looking for political reform. The radicals were supported by working-class Paris, and were looking for social reform.
One of the main reasons for the workers to revolt was that they wanted the right to work, and they expected the new government to provide this for them. National Workshops were created as a relief project to prevent the mobs from revolting again.
The split between Parisian radicals and French moderates was clearly shown on April 23rd, or election day, when the population went to the polls to elect representatives for the National Assembly, which would create a Constitution.
With the revolutionaries in control of Paris and the King in flight, the Chamber of Deputies selected a provisional government of moderate republicans (a state where the majority of power is held by the people) for the newly born Second French Republic. At the same time, the radical republicans chose their own government. After negotiations, these two governments reached a compromise where three members of the radical faction would be added to the moderate government, including Louis Blanc, who believed that workers had a basic right to work and a decent living; it was he who came up with the idea of national workshops.
Over the next four months, division between the moderates and the radicals in the government deepened. The moderates were supported by the majority of the French people and were looking for political reform. The radicals were supported by working-class Paris, and were looking for social reform.
One of the main reasons for the workers to revolt was that they wanted the right to work, and they expected the new government to provide this for them. National Workshops were created as a relief project to prevent the mobs from revolting again.
The split between Parisian radicals and French moderates was clearly shown on April 23rd, or election day, when the population went to the polls to elect representatives for the National Assembly, which would create a Constitution.
- 500 seats went to moderate republicans
- 300 seats went to monarchists
- 100 seats went to radical republicans
Reactions to the February Revolution
Many were unhappy with the government as they had done nothing about the economic depression that brought on unemployment. Also, there had been a series of of poor harvests and food prices were high. With poor employment prospects, many struggled to afford the high prices. The King, the government and businessmen seemed to be getting richer, while most were in poverty. The government did not seem to be doing anything to spread the wealth. Some wanted the republic they did not get in 1830. Also, the socialist working class, represented by Louis Blanc, were outraged because Blanc was dropped from the National Assembly. This led to the June Days.
Many were unhappy with the government as they had done nothing about the economic depression that brought on unemployment. Also, there had been a series of of poor harvests and food prices were high. With poor employment prospects, many struggled to afford the high prices. The King, the government and businessmen seemed to be getting richer, while most were in poverty. The government did not seem to be doing anything to spread the wealth. Some wanted the republic they did not get in 1830. Also, the socialist working class, represented by Louis Blanc, were outraged because Blanc was dropped from the National Assembly. This led to the June Days.
Events of the June Days
The workers of Paris took to the streets once again on May 15th. The crowd stormed the hall where the delegates were meeting, listened to revolutionary speeches, moved on to Hotel de Ville, and elected a provisional government.
Unlike Louis-Philippe, the newly elected Second Republic decisively. Several of the revolutionary leaders were arrested and revolutionary clubs were closed down.
On June 22nd, the government closed the National Workshops due to them being too expensive for the government to run. Most unskilled workers were dependent on these Workshops in order to make a small living. Up to 120,000 workers, suddenly without payroll, took up arms. Martial law was declared and the army was given permission to use all means available to bring the protest to an end. General Cavaignac allowed the crowds to spread, then moved in with heavy artillery over six days. His men systematically and brutally cleared the streets of Paris and the barricades and protestors. Around 3000 rioters were killed and up to four times more were arrested. The crucial aspect was that if Cavaignac had wished to become dictator, he could have done so at this point. However, he still had faith in republican government based on the will of the people. The assembly appointed Cavaignac as the chief executive of power, to ensure that order would be maintained while the constitution was drawn up.
The workers of Paris took to the streets once again on May 15th. The crowd stormed the hall where the delegates were meeting, listened to revolutionary speeches, moved on to Hotel de Ville, and elected a provisional government.
Unlike Louis-Philippe, the newly elected Second Republic decisively. Several of the revolutionary leaders were arrested and revolutionary clubs were closed down.
On June 22nd, the government closed the National Workshops due to them being too expensive for the government to run. Most unskilled workers were dependent on these Workshops in order to make a small living. Up to 120,000 workers, suddenly without payroll, took up arms. Martial law was declared and the army was given permission to use all means available to bring the protest to an end. General Cavaignac allowed the crowds to spread, then moved in with heavy artillery over six days. His men systematically and brutally cleared the streets of Paris and the barricades and protestors. Around 3000 rioters were killed and up to four times more were arrested. The crucial aspect was that if Cavaignac had wished to become dictator, he could have done so at this point. However, he still had faith in republican government based on the will of the people. The assembly appointed Cavaignac as the chief executive of power, to ensure that order would be maintained while the constitution was drawn up.
Consequences of the June Days
The constitution of the Second Republic, which finally appeared in November, made no reference to the 'right to work' and gave full power to a President to be elected by universal suffrage. Within two months, the working day had been extended to 12 hours. In December Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected as President - most people voted for him because his was the only name they recognized on the ballot, as he was the nephew of the great emperor. His name was associated with national glory and restoration of order and he was seen as a man who had people’s interest at heart with the support of veteran politicians.
In December 1851, Louis Napoleon overthrew Second Republic and proclaimed himself emperor in 1852.
The constitution of the Second Republic, which finally appeared in November, made no reference to the 'right to work' and gave full power to a President to be elected by universal suffrage. Within two months, the working day had been extended to 12 hours. In December Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected as President - most people voted for him because his was the only name they recognized on the ballot, as he was the nephew of the great emperor. His name was associated with national glory and restoration of order and he was seen as a man who had people’s interest at heart with the support of veteran politicians.
In December 1851, Louis Napoleon overthrew Second Republic and proclaimed himself emperor in 1852.
Presidential Election Results (December 1848)
Candidate
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte General Cavaignac Lamartine |
Votes received
5,400,000 1,500,000 17,000 |
Italy
In 1848, a series of events led to either the expulsion of Austrian troops or the granting of political concessions in many Italian states. These revolutions were caused by a number of factors:
The writings of Mazzini and the actions of the Young Italy movement began to make an impact, especially among intellectuals. Mazzini’s call for the removal of the Austrians and the forming of an Italian Republic appealed to many especially in the middle to late ’40s with so much happening in the rest of Europe.
- Italian nationalists dreamed of a united Italy and opposed Austria's presence in Italy
- There was a general demand for more liberal forms of government
- Grave economic difficulties resulted in social conflict in both towns and the countryside
The writings of Mazzini and the actions of the Young Italy movement began to make an impact, especially among intellectuals. Mazzini’s call for the removal of the Austrians and the forming of an Italian Republic appealed to many especially in the middle to late ’40s with so much happening in the rest of Europe.
Main Events
The news of Metternich's fall sparked nationalist uprising in Lombardy and Venetia.
An uprising in Milan, the capital of Lombardy, was directed against the Austrian occupation of Lombardy. In January 1848, the citizens of Milan abandoned smoking to annoy the Austrians, who monopolized the tobacco trade. The Austrian garrison was driven out of Milan in the 'Five Days' (the 18th to the 22nd of March 1848) in a desperate battle. This resulted in the expulsion of Austrian troops and a provisional government was formed with help from Piedmont. Lombardy was restored to Austrian rule in August 1848.
On 22nd March, Venice rose and expelled Austrian troops. A Venetian republic was proclaimed under Manin. Later in the year, Venice was besieged by Austrian forces; the city finally surrendered in August 1849.
Lombardy looked to Charles Albert, King of Piedmont, for support. Hoping to transform Piedmont into a major power, Charles Albert became interested in the possibilities of taking Lombardy from Austria in the name of Italian nationalism and annex them to his own kingdom. His troops then attacked Austrian forces in Lombardy, claiming to be lending assistance to Lombardy. On 4th March, Charles Albert, anxious to have the support of the liberals for any war with Austria, set up a Piedmontese liberal constitution. Despite the lack of support from other Italian states, it seemed at first that Piedmont might succeed against Austria, who had serious domestic troubles back in their Empire. However, Austria defeated Piedmont decisively on two occasions (25th July 1848 and 23rd March 1849). In March 1849 Charles Albert restarted the war but was defeated again at Novara.
The news of Metternich's fall sparked nationalist uprising in Lombardy and Venetia.
An uprising in Milan, the capital of Lombardy, was directed against the Austrian occupation of Lombardy. In January 1848, the citizens of Milan abandoned smoking to annoy the Austrians, who monopolized the tobacco trade. The Austrian garrison was driven out of Milan in the 'Five Days' (the 18th to the 22nd of March 1848) in a desperate battle. This resulted in the expulsion of Austrian troops and a provisional government was formed with help from Piedmont. Lombardy was restored to Austrian rule in August 1848.
On 22nd March, Venice rose and expelled Austrian troops. A Venetian republic was proclaimed under Manin. Later in the year, Venice was besieged by Austrian forces; the city finally surrendered in August 1849.
Lombardy looked to Charles Albert, King of Piedmont, for support. Hoping to transform Piedmont into a major power, Charles Albert became interested in the possibilities of taking Lombardy from Austria in the name of Italian nationalism and annex them to his own kingdom. His troops then attacked Austrian forces in Lombardy, claiming to be lending assistance to Lombardy. On 4th March, Charles Albert, anxious to have the support of the liberals for any war with Austria, set up a Piedmontese liberal constitution. Despite the lack of support from other Italian states, it seemed at first that Piedmont might succeed against Austria, who had serious domestic troubles back in their Empire. However, Austria defeated Piedmont decisively on two occasions (25th July 1848 and 23rd March 1849). In March 1849 Charles Albert restarted the war but was defeated again at Novara.
Events in Rome (The Papal States)
In Rome, disturbances caused Pope Pius IX to grant a constitution on the 15th of March, 1848. On the 24th of November, Pope Pius IX left the city, disguised as a simple priest. A provisional government administered the city until an assembly could me elected. The assembly proclaimed Rome a republic under Mazzini. A series of reforms were carried out. The Pope appealed to European powers and France intervened. A French army landed in April and began a full-scale military operation. At Mazzini's urging, Garibaldi took command of the defense of Rome. On 30 April 1849 the Republican army, under Garibaldi's command, defeated a numerically far superior French army. Subsequently, French reinforcements arrived, and the siege of Rome began on 1 June. Despite the resistance of the Republican army, the French prevailed on 29 June. On 30 June the Roman Assembly met and debated three options: surrender, continue fighting in the streets, or retreat from Rome to continue resistance from the Apennine mountains. Rome surrendered to the French on the 30th of June 1849 and the Pope was restored.
In Rome, disturbances caused Pope Pius IX to grant a constitution on the 15th of March, 1848. On the 24th of November, Pope Pius IX left the city, disguised as a simple priest. A provisional government administered the city until an assembly could me elected. The assembly proclaimed Rome a republic under Mazzini. A series of reforms were carried out. The Pope appealed to European powers and France intervened. A French army landed in April and began a full-scale military operation. At Mazzini's urging, Garibaldi took command of the defense of Rome. On 30 April 1849 the Republican army, under Garibaldi's command, defeated a numerically far superior French army. Subsequently, French reinforcements arrived, and the siege of Rome began on 1 June. Despite the resistance of the Republican army, the French prevailed on 29 June. On 30 June the Roman Assembly met and debated three options: surrender, continue fighting in the streets, or retreat from Rome to continue resistance from the Apennine mountains. Rome surrendered to the French on the 30th of June 1849 and the Pope was restored.
Events in Sicily
On 12th January, rebels in Palermo defeated Ferdinand II's (Sicilian) troops. The King was forced to accept the 1812 constitution and to extend it to Naples and grant an amnesty to political prisoners. Between January and April 1848, revolutionaries seized control of Sicily. Their main aim was to secure independence from Naples. A deceleration to this effect was proclaimed in March 1848. However, Sicily was forcibly reunited with Naples in the spring of 1849.
On 12th January, rebels in Palermo defeated Ferdinand II's (Sicilian) troops. The King was forced to accept the 1812 constitution and to extend it to Naples and grant an amnesty to political prisoners. Between January and April 1848, revolutionaries seized control of Sicily. Their main aim was to secure independence from Naples. A deceleration to this effect was proclaimed in March 1848. However, Sicily was forcibly reunited with Naples in the spring of 1849.
Events in Naples
Revolution in Sicily quickly began to spread to the rest of Italy. King Ferdinand II was forced to agree to the establishment of a parliament and the removal of press censorship. The uprising in Naples was suppressed by September 1848.
Revolution in Sicily quickly began to spread to the rest of Italy. King Ferdinand II was forced to agree to the establishment of a parliament and the removal of press censorship. The uprising in Naples was suppressed by September 1848.
Events in Tuscany
On 11th February, the Grand Duke agreed to allow representative government and the grant of a constitution. Republic government was established in early 1849.
On 11th February, the Grand Duke agreed to allow representative government and the grant of a constitution. Republic government was established in early 1849.
Events in Parma & Modena
Rulers of both states were driven out of their possessions, but were soon restored by Austrian troops.
Rulers of both states were driven out of their possessions, but were soon restored by Austrian troops.
Conclusions of the Italian Revolutions
Fortunately for Austria, Italians as a whole did not rally to the flag of Charles Albert. All the revolutions were ultimately put down. Everywhere with the exception of Piedmont, constitutions were abolished and the old order re-established. In 1848-49 Italian nationalism was not strong enough, nationalists not united enough, and Piedmont not strong enough to secure success.
Fortunately for Austria, Italians as a whole did not rally to the flag of Charles Albert. All the revolutions were ultimately put down. Everywhere with the exception of Piedmont, constitutions were abolished and the old order re-established. In 1848-49 Italian nationalism was not strong enough, nationalists not united enough, and Piedmont not strong enough to secure success.
Germany
The German Confederation was made up of a collection of German states, along with Prussia, the biggest state, and Austria, which was an imperial monarchy ruled by the Hapsburg royal family. The Confederation was held together by several monarchies with support from nobility.
The news of the revolution in France unleashed a series of smaller revolutions in many of the thirty-eight German states. Like in France, most of the revolutionaries were middle-class liberals who longed for greater participation in government, urban workers and artisans who were angered because of the effect of industrialization on their professions. Most of the German rulers tried to learn from Louis-Philippe's mistakes by promising to instate constitution and other reforms before the revolutionaries could organize.
The news of the revolution in France unleashed a series of smaller revolutions in many of the thirty-eight German states. Like in France, most of the revolutionaries were middle-class liberals who longed for greater participation in government, urban workers and artisans who were angered because of the effect of industrialization on their professions. Most of the German rulers tried to learn from Louis-Philippe's mistakes by promising to instate constitution and other reforms before the revolutionaries could organize.
Events in Germany
After the French revolutions in France, there were many minor riots in German states. Austria and Prussia expected to crush these revolts as they were the two biggest states, but the revolution in Vienna led to the fall of Metternich. Not only were there riots in Austria, Prussia was also affected by the Berlin riots. Like his father, Frederick William IV was opposed to giving the people a constitution. On March 13 there was a demonstration by workers in the palace square in Berlin. Demonstrators threw stones at the troops and the troops responded by opening fire. On March 18 a large crowd gathered outside the royal palace. The King appeared on the balcony and was cheered by the crowds. The troops were ordered to disperse the crowd. Shots were fired by the troops either in panic or by accident after some jostling had taken place. Students and workers immediately set up barricades and serious fighting broke out. At least 300 rioters were killed as troops took control of the city. The King agreed to withdraw the troops if the barricades were removed and set up a Prussian Assembly. The elected radical revolutionaries wanted to unite the German states in order to create a country that could rival Russia. The Assembly also wanted to grant Polish people in Germany self-government. The King did not like this at all; he decided that the democratic experiment had gone on long enough and dissolved the Prussian Assembly.
After the French revolutions in France, there were many minor riots in German states. Austria and Prussia expected to crush these revolts as they were the two biggest states, but the revolution in Vienna led to the fall of Metternich. Not only were there riots in Austria, Prussia was also affected by the Berlin riots. Like his father, Frederick William IV was opposed to giving the people a constitution. On March 13 there was a demonstration by workers in the palace square in Berlin. Demonstrators threw stones at the troops and the troops responded by opening fire. On March 18 a large crowd gathered outside the royal palace. The King appeared on the balcony and was cheered by the crowds. The troops were ordered to disperse the crowd. Shots were fired by the troops either in panic or by accident after some jostling had taken place. Students and workers immediately set up barricades and serious fighting broke out. At least 300 rioters were killed as troops took control of the city. The King agreed to withdraw the troops if the barricades were removed and set up a Prussian Assembly. The elected radical revolutionaries wanted to unite the German states in order to create a country that could rival Russia. The Assembly also wanted to grant Polish people in Germany self-government. The King did not like this at all; he decided that the democratic experiment had gone on long enough and dissolved the Prussian Assembly.
The Frankfurt Parliament
The 1848 revolutions inspired a nationalist movement in Germany. In May 1848, a group of German nationalists met at the Frankfurt Parliament. German liberals were overjoyed and the assembly decided that there would be universal suffrage and delegates from mostly the middle class. This Assembly wanted to create a unified Germany that was liberal and constitutionally governed. They argued over various topics, such as wether the new Germany would have a Prussian or Austrian ruler.
In December 1848, the Frankfurt Parliament released the Declaration of Rights of the German People, based on similar declarations made in France and the United States. The German declaration ignored the universal rights of mankind, focusing purely on Germany.
In 1849, Germany was offered to Frederick William IV. He coveted the territory but knew that acceptance would lead to a war with Austria. Frederick William refused the Crown because he thought the offer should come from fellow kings and princes of the Germanic states, rather than from representatives of the states in the Frankfurt Parliament. Frederick William thought there were vital issues which were not totally sorted out by the Parliament. Would the Imperial Crown include or exclude Austria? Was it Grossdeutschland or Kleindeutschland?’ Frederick William tended to be an indecisive character who often changed his mind.
The 1848 revolutions inspired a nationalist movement in Germany. In May 1848, a group of German nationalists met at the Frankfurt Parliament. German liberals were overjoyed and the assembly decided that there would be universal suffrage and delegates from mostly the middle class. This Assembly wanted to create a unified Germany that was liberal and constitutionally governed. They argued over various topics, such as wether the new Germany would have a Prussian or Austrian ruler.
In December 1848, the Frankfurt Parliament released the Declaration of Rights of the German People, based on similar declarations made in France and the United States. The German declaration ignored the universal rights of mankind, focusing purely on Germany.
In 1849, Germany was offered to Frederick William IV. He coveted the territory but knew that acceptance would lead to a war with Austria. Frederick William refused the Crown because he thought the offer should come from fellow kings and princes of the Germanic states, rather than from representatives of the states in the Frankfurt Parliament. Frederick William thought there were vital issues which were not totally sorted out by the Parliament. Would the Imperial Crown include or exclude Austria? Was it Grossdeutschland or Kleindeutschland?’ Frederick William tended to be an indecisive character who often changed his mind.
Conclusions of the German Revolutions
- There was little popular support for change as Prussia was already quite prosperous
- In the end, force and military strength decided the outcome of the revolution
- The alliance between the liberals and democrats didn't last
- Many intelligent liberals left and conservatives held their ground
Austria
Causes of the Austrian Revolutions
The uprisings in Vienna in 1848 differed from those in Prussia because Austria was not exactly a German state. The industrialism in Austria created similar patterns of social change, growing bourgeoisie and the middle class. The real threat to the Austrian Empire was its multiethnic character. The Hapsburgs ruled an empire that contained eleven different nationalities: Croats, Czechs, Germans, Italians, Hungarians, Poles, Romanians, Serbs, Slovaks and Slovenes. All of these groups had aspirations for self-government and national autonomy.
The uprisings in Vienna in 1848 differed from those in Prussia because Austria was not exactly a German state. The industrialism in Austria created similar patterns of social change, growing bourgeoisie and the middle class. The real threat to the Austrian Empire was its multiethnic character. The Hapsburgs ruled an empire that contained eleven different nationalities: Croats, Czechs, Germans, Italians, Hungarians, Poles, Romanians, Serbs, Slovaks and Slovenes. All of these groups had aspirations for self-government and national autonomy.
Events of the Austrian Revolutions
The initial responses to the French revolutions were surprisingly mild in Austria: the first response was a group of students sending a petition to the emperor requesting freedom of speech and abolition of press censorship. In March 1848, a radical Hungarian Magyar group led by Lajos Kossuth began a vocal independence movement. Kossuth's fiery speeches were soon printed in Vienna, where they started a sensation and soon an uprising. Metternich, monitoring the revolutions throughout Europe, had become fearful. Lajos Kossuth addressed the Hungarian Diet on March the 3rd, requesting an imperial constitution that would give autonomy to Hungary. His inspirational and persuasive speech led to the passing of the 'March Laws' and the first Viennese uprising on March 12. Metternich resigned on March 13, fleeing to England. On March 15, Kossuth's Hungary was granted independence under Hapsburg rule. In March, the Czechs, inspired by the Hungarians, pressed their claim for autonomy.
A delegation, headed by history professor Francis Palacky, was sent to Vienna to present the Czech demands - a package of liberal reforms and the unity and independence of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia. Back in Vienna, Ferdinand went back to his promise for a constitutional assembly and promoted a constitution on his own, but it was not liberal enough to satisfy the radicals in the city. Vienna suffered a second uprising by students, workers, and members of the National Guard. The imperial family was forced to flee to Innsbruck, where they would plan their own counter-revolution.
Vienna was in the hands of the revolutionaries for several months (May to October), but the imperial army remained loyal to the Hapsburg dynasty. While the emperor appeared to cooperate with assembly's efforts to draft a constitution, military leaders encouraged the Commander in Prague to drill his troops in preparation to take back the capital.
In April, Vienna agreed to some of the demands made by the Czechs, including abolishing the laws which made it illegal for Czech speakers to occupy high office. It also agreed to establish a parliament in Prague. In June, the first Slav congress opened in Prague. Palacky wanted a federal constitution which would give the Czechs a greater measure of home rule whilst remaining under the protective cloak of the empire. Palacky had very little chance of obtaining what he wanted as Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia had significant German-speaking communities who had no wish to be ruled by Czechs. Nor did the Slav congress inspire confidence. The Czechs were just one Slav group within the Austrian empire. Mutual rivalries divided Czechs, Poles, Slovaks and Serbs, all of whom were represented in Prague. Unable to agree on a common purpose, the congress achieved nothing and served merely to reveal divisions within Slav nationalism.
On 12 June, riots broke out in Prague. They had almost nothing to do with the congress being essentially a protest by unemployed workers who were joined by radical students. The Prague revolution was in a real sense the revolution that never was. As few as 1200 people out of a population of 100,000 were involved. General Windischgraetz, a commander of the imperial army in Prague, seized the opportunity to stop the revolution. Within five days the uprising was subdued. Most Austrian-Germans felt little sympathy for the Czech rebels and were pleased that the Prague revolt and the forcible closure of the Slav congress proved to be a decisive turning point in the history of the 1848 revolutions in the Hapsburg empire.
The summer of 1848 in Vienna was tense. There were several rival centers of power. Oddly, government ministers thought claiming control over other nationalities had limited influence. A committee of Public Safety set up in May had more authority: it aimed to safeguard the reforms that had already been secured and to maintain order. Emulating France, it set up national workshops which were supposed to provide useful work with pay. In June and August, further worker protests were suppressed by the National Guard. An imperial parliament met in July but found it hard to work together, since real power lay with the army. Emperor Ferdinand returned to Vienna in August feeling that the worst of the revolution was over, but he had miscalculated. Jelacic, the Governor of Croatia, invaded Hungary with a Croat army. On the 3rd of October, the March Laws were pronounced illegal and the Hungarian Diet was dissolved. Kossuth declared that the revolution was in danger and he called on all of the emperor's opponents to act together to save the cause. Most Austrians had little sympathy with the Hungarians. However, radicals in Vienna sought to prevent soldiers being sent to Hungary to aid Jelacic. Fighting broke out and there were some casualties. Workers and students seized control of the inner city and an angry mob marched on the Ministry of War, brutally murdering the minister, Count Latour. The royal family fled once again, this time to Olmutz. Windischgraetz and his 100,000 troops were sent to deal with the third Viennese uprising and the city was finally liberated in late October. Over 2000 people were killed during the October Days and the rebel leaders were rounded up and shot.
The initial responses to the French revolutions were surprisingly mild in Austria: the first response was a group of students sending a petition to the emperor requesting freedom of speech and abolition of press censorship. In March 1848, a radical Hungarian Magyar group led by Lajos Kossuth began a vocal independence movement. Kossuth's fiery speeches were soon printed in Vienna, where they started a sensation and soon an uprising. Metternich, monitoring the revolutions throughout Europe, had become fearful. Lajos Kossuth addressed the Hungarian Diet on March the 3rd, requesting an imperial constitution that would give autonomy to Hungary. His inspirational and persuasive speech led to the passing of the 'March Laws' and the first Viennese uprising on March 12. Metternich resigned on March 13, fleeing to England. On March 15, Kossuth's Hungary was granted independence under Hapsburg rule. In March, the Czechs, inspired by the Hungarians, pressed their claim for autonomy.
A delegation, headed by history professor Francis Palacky, was sent to Vienna to present the Czech demands - a package of liberal reforms and the unity and independence of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia. Back in Vienna, Ferdinand went back to his promise for a constitutional assembly and promoted a constitution on his own, but it was not liberal enough to satisfy the radicals in the city. Vienna suffered a second uprising by students, workers, and members of the National Guard. The imperial family was forced to flee to Innsbruck, where they would plan their own counter-revolution.
Vienna was in the hands of the revolutionaries for several months (May to October), but the imperial army remained loyal to the Hapsburg dynasty. While the emperor appeared to cooperate with assembly's efforts to draft a constitution, military leaders encouraged the Commander in Prague to drill his troops in preparation to take back the capital.
In April, Vienna agreed to some of the demands made by the Czechs, including abolishing the laws which made it illegal for Czech speakers to occupy high office. It also agreed to establish a parliament in Prague. In June, the first Slav congress opened in Prague. Palacky wanted a federal constitution which would give the Czechs a greater measure of home rule whilst remaining under the protective cloak of the empire. Palacky had very little chance of obtaining what he wanted as Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia had significant German-speaking communities who had no wish to be ruled by Czechs. Nor did the Slav congress inspire confidence. The Czechs were just one Slav group within the Austrian empire. Mutual rivalries divided Czechs, Poles, Slovaks and Serbs, all of whom were represented in Prague. Unable to agree on a common purpose, the congress achieved nothing and served merely to reveal divisions within Slav nationalism.
On 12 June, riots broke out in Prague. They had almost nothing to do with the congress being essentially a protest by unemployed workers who were joined by radical students. The Prague revolution was in a real sense the revolution that never was. As few as 1200 people out of a population of 100,000 were involved. General Windischgraetz, a commander of the imperial army in Prague, seized the opportunity to stop the revolution. Within five days the uprising was subdued. Most Austrian-Germans felt little sympathy for the Czech rebels and were pleased that the Prague revolt and the forcible closure of the Slav congress proved to be a decisive turning point in the history of the 1848 revolutions in the Hapsburg empire.
The summer of 1848 in Vienna was tense. There were several rival centers of power. Oddly, government ministers thought claiming control over other nationalities had limited influence. A committee of Public Safety set up in May had more authority: it aimed to safeguard the reforms that had already been secured and to maintain order. Emulating France, it set up national workshops which were supposed to provide useful work with pay. In June and August, further worker protests were suppressed by the National Guard. An imperial parliament met in July but found it hard to work together, since real power lay with the army. Emperor Ferdinand returned to Vienna in August feeling that the worst of the revolution was over, but he had miscalculated. Jelacic, the Governor of Croatia, invaded Hungary with a Croat army. On the 3rd of October, the March Laws were pronounced illegal and the Hungarian Diet was dissolved. Kossuth declared that the revolution was in danger and he called on all of the emperor's opponents to act together to save the cause. Most Austrians had little sympathy with the Hungarians. However, radicals in Vienna sought to prevent soldiers being sent to Hungary to aid Jelacic. Fighting broke out and there were some casualties. Workers and students seized control of the inner city and an angry mob marched on the Ministry of War, brutally murdering the minister, Count Latour. The royal family fled once again, this time to Olmutz. Windischgraetz and his 100,000 troops were sent to deal with the third Viennese uprising and the city was finally liberated in late October. Over 2000 people were killed during the October Days and the rebel leaders were rounded up and shot.
Conclusions of the Austrian Revolutions
Emperor Ferdinand abdicated in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph, in December. The new Emperor was determined to follow a policy of monarchial absolutism. When the imperial parliament finally presented a constitution in March 1849 it was ignored. Hungary proved to be the most difficult region to subdue. In April 1849, Kossuth proclaimed the Hapsburg dynasty deposed and Hungary totally independent. Austria requested Russian military assistance in May and Hungary was defeated in August. Kossuth escaped into permanent exile but some 100 Hungarians were executed and 2000 were imprisoned. By 1849, the Austrian empire had emerged from the months of turmoil with a strengthened political leadership and all its territories intact.
Emperor Ferdinand abdicated in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph, in December. The new Emperor was determined to follow a policy of monarchial absolutism. When the imperial parliament finally presented a constitution in March 1849 it was ignored. Hungary proved to be the most difficult region to subdue. In April 1849, Kossuth proclaimed the Hapsburg dynasty deposed and Hungary totally independent. Austria requested Russian military assistance in May and Hungary was defeated in August. Kossuth escaped into permanent exile but some 100 Hungarians were executed and 2000 were imprisoned. By 1849, the Austrian empire had emerged from the months of turmoil with a strengthened political leadership and all its territories intact.
Conclusions of the 1848 Revolutions
Common Features:
- They were all revolts against monarchy
- Liberals and democrats were the main forces behind the revolts
- Industrialization had created greater political awareness among the general population
- Nationalism was a growing force throughout Europe and caused some revolts (e.g. Hungary)
- Poor economic conditions led to unrest (e.g. Irish Potato Famine)
- Not a single monarchy was destroyed and Europe returned to its pre-1848 situation
Reasons for Failure:
- The working class never fully supported the revolutions
- The middle class deserted the revolutions once they turned violent
- Nationalism caused divides among revolutionaries
- The revolutions needed to fully remove the conservatives
- The militaries in many countries continued to support their monarchies
- There was lack of international support
Gains made by the 1848 Revolutions:
In France, the monarchy fell and socialists and republicans formed a provisional government. Louis Napoleon became President and later assumed power as Emperor. Despite the revolution in Hungary being crushed, in the longer term it was successful with its own official language, Diet and equality with Austria by 1867.
In France, the monarchy fell and socialists and republicans formed a provisional government. Louis Napoleon became President and later assumed power as Emperor. Despite the revolution in Hungary being crushed, in the longer term it was successful with its own official language, Diet and equality with Austria by 1867.
Losses from the 1848 Revolutions:
Revolutions spread across Germany and liberals and nationalists met to draft a new constitution, but it failed. Prussian attempts to become leader of a united Germany were quashed by Austria. The liberals and nationalists wanted Austrians out of Italy for good. Charles Albert did not get the expected support and was heavily defeated.
Revolutions spread across Germany and liberals and nationalists met to draft a new constitution, but it failed. Prussian attempts to become leader of a united Germany were quashed by Austria. The liberals and nationalists wanted Austrians out of Italy for good. Charles Albert did not get the expected support and was heavily defeated.